CHAPTER THREE

Loads on Bridge
 Loads on Bridge
Loading classification based on:
 Duration (permanent, transient)
 Direction (vertical, longitudinal, transversal)
 Deformation (creep, shrinkage, temperature change,
settlement)
 Effect (shear, bending, torsion)
 Loads on Bridge
 Typical loads

 Permanent Loads

 Live loads

• Live load of vehicle

• Pedestrian load

• Dynamic load allowance

 Other loads
• Fatigue Load
• Water Load
• Wind Load • Vehicular collision Load
• Earthquake Load
 Count…
This are trailers.
Count…
 Permanent Load
 Dead Load: DC
 Dead load includes the self weight of :
• Structural components such as girder, slab, cross beam, etc…
• Nonstructural components such as medians, railing, signs,
 we can estimate dead load from the material density
 Dead load of wearing surface: DW
 It is the weight of the wearing surface
 Other permanent loads:
 earth load, water load, load from construction process creep and
shrinkage
 Material Density

Asphalt Paving Material 2250

 Tributary Area for Dead Loads
 Dead loads are distributed to girder using tributary area method
Analysis strategy for live load effect in bridge
Basic Types of LL
Various live load
AASHTO HL-93 loads
Truck load
Place to get maximum effect Tandem load
Lane load
LL combinations
Live
Consider dynamic effect LL placement
load Multiple presence factor
Method of analysis
Distribute load to each girder
 Influence line
 Design equation
Calculate movement & shear  Design chart
to be used in the design
 1. Live loads of vehicles: LL
For design purpose, we are interested the kind of vehicle
that produce the worst effect

AASHTO has 3 basic types of LL called the HL-93

loading (stands for highway Loading, year 1993)
 Design truck
 Design tandem
 Design lane load
 1. Truck Loads:
 Design truck has three axles, with axle loads and spacing as presented in next slide

 Cause severe load effect compared to other small vehicles like cars

 Highly variable, dynamic

 For two-axial trucks AASHTO designates these vehicles as H series trucks.

 Trucks that pull trailers are designated as HS, for example HS 20 (a 20-ton semi-
trailer truck).

 The design truck is so called HS-20 has a total weight of 325kN

 In general, a truck loading depends on the type of bridge, its location, and the type
of traffic anticipated.

 Distance b/n second and third axles may be varied to produce the maximum effect
 Need to multiply this load by dynamic load allowance factor(IM)
 2. Tandem Loads
 A two axle load vehicle with 110kN on each axle spaced 1.2 m apart

 The transverse spacing of wheels =1.8 m.

Leads larger moment than HS20 truck on structures

Need to multiply this load by dynamic load allowance factor(IM)

 3. Design Lane Load
Is a uniformly distributed load of 9.3kN/m in longitudinal direction

The design lane load shall be assumed to be uniformly distributed

over a 3.0-m width

No dynamic allowance factor is used

 This is to represent
vehicle live load on
bridges moving slowly
during traffic jam.
 Live Load Combinations
3 ways to add the design truck, design tandem, and uniform load:

Combination 1: HS20 truck load + design lane load

Combination 2: Tandem load +design lane load

Combination 3: 90% negative moment at interior supports of

continuous span bridge
 Place two HS20 truck on the adjacent spans

 Not less than15m apart

 But it is from the front axle of one truck to the rear

axle of the other truck + design lane
The maximum effect of these 3 cases is used for the design
 Live Load Combinations

Live Load Description

Combination
LL#1 Design tandem (+ IM) + design lane load
LL#2 Design truk (+ IM) + design lane load
LL#3 90% (Design truk (+ IM) + design lane load)

The load in each case must be positioned to produce a maximum

effect(Mmax &Vmax)
Design Truck, Tandem & Lane
Vehicle Load Combination
=4.3m
=15m
 Live Load Placement
1. Transverse direction
 The design truck and design tandem should be in such a way that
the effect being considered is maximized
 However, the center of wheel is note closer than
 30cm from face of curb/barrier for the design of a deck
overhang
 60cm from edge of design lane for the design of all other
components
 if side walk is not separated by crash resistant traffic barrier it is
considered that vehicles can be on the side walk
Transverse direction
 2. Live Load Placement-Longitudinal
 Similarly place the live load along span direction to produce the
maximum effect
 For simply supported span beam with a single concentrated load,
maximum moment occurs when the load is at center of span.

 However, for a truck load is a group of concentrated load, it is not

clear where the place the group of loads to get the maximum moment
 Live Load Placement-Longitudinal

 Methods of finding moment and shear in span:

 Influence line (IL) – for simple span and
continuous spans
 Design Equation – for simple span
 Design charts – for simple span
 Live Load placement - Influence Line (IL)
 Influence lines represent the effect of a moving load only at a
specified point on a member.
 Tells us how to place the moving LL to produce the maximum effect
on the structures, But it doesn’t tell us where the absolute Mmax
occurs
 For series of concentrated loads the maximum moment occurs at
the position of one of the loads. But which one ?
 For a point load, the response is equal to the value of point load
multiplied by the ordinates (y-value) of the influence line
 Live Load placement - Influence Line (IL)
 For uniform load, the response is equal to the value of the uniform
load multiplied by the area under the influence line within the
uniform load
 There are two methods

1. Trial and Error ;

 Move series of concentrated loads along the span by

letting each load passes on the peak of IL

 Can be tedious when you have a lot of concentrated load

 Live Load placement - Influence Line (IL)
2.Increase/ Decrease Method
 This method determine whether the response (moment,
shear, or reaction) increase or decrease as the series of
concentrated loads move into span
 Look whether the response is increasing or decreasing as
the series of concentrated loads move to determine critical
position of load with out to examine all the loading
positions.
 Live Load placement - Influence Line (IL)
Example
 Consider the beam shown bellow and determine the influence
functions for the reaction and moment at points A & B
respectively where point B is located at mid span.
 Also find the maximum reaction and moment for the given
truck load
B 35KN 145KN 415KN

0.5L 0.5L
A
L=20m
4.3m 9m
 Solution
Procedures
1. Place a unit load (1kN) at a point, x , along the member.
2. Use the equations of equilibrium to find the value of the
reaction, shear & moment at a specific point at A &B
respectively due the concentrated load as a function of x .
3. Plot the values of the reaction, shear, or moment for the
member.
4. Calculate the response function for a given position of the
concentrated load series
 Influence lines for reactions at A and C

 The Ordinates Influence Lines for RA and RC

MA =0 (Rc)(L) – (1)(x) = 0 RC = x/L

Fy =0 RA +Rc=1 RA =1-Rc= 1-x/L

 Influence Lines for bending moment at B

MB =0

𝑀B=0.5LRA−(0.5L−𝑋) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝑋 ≤ 0.5L

𝑀 =0.5LR 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0.5L ≤ 𝑋 ≤ L

  Summery of the result
influnce line ordinate
unit load at
RC(kN/kN) RA (kN/kN) MB(kNm/kN)
A 0 1 0
B 0.5 0.5 5
C 1 0 0
 4. Calculate the response function for a given position of the
concentrated load series
Reaction at A
Case 1
35 145 145
KN KN KN

C
0.5L=10m B 0.5L =10m
A
L=20m

RA 1 0.785
0.335

x
4.3m 13.3m 20m

(RA)1 = 35(1) + 145(0.785+0.335) = 197.4kN

 Case 2
145 145
KN KN

B C
0.5L=10m 0.5L =10m
A
L=20m

RA 1 0.55

x
9m 20m

(RA)1 = 35(0) + 145(1+0.55) = 224.75kN governing

 Case 3
145
KN

C
0.5L=10m B 0.5L =10m
A
L=20m

RA 1

x
20m

(RA)3 = 35(0) + 145(0+1) = 145kN

 Moment

• Using the same method to calculate the critical position

of series of concentrated forces so that they create largest
internal moment at a specified position in the structure.

• First Draw ILD of moment for the given point and then
proceed with the calculations.

40
 Case 1
35 145 145
KN KN KN

0.5L=10m B 0.5L =10m C

A
L=20m

1 5
RA
2.85

x
10m 14.3m 20m

(MB)1 = 35(5) + 145(2.85+0) = 588.25kNm

 Case 2
35 145 145
KN KN KN

C
0.5L=10m B 0.5L =10m
A
L=20m

1 5
RA
2.85
0.5
x
5.7m 10m 19m 20m

(MB)2 = 35(2.85) + 145(5+0.5) = 897.25kNm governing

 Case 3
145 145
KN KN

C
0.5L=10m B 0.5L =10m
A
L=20m

1 5
RA
0.5
x
5.7m 10m 19m 20m

(MB)3 = 35(0) + 145(5+0.5) = 797.5kNm

 Live Load placement – Design Equation
Using Barre’s Theorem for Simple supported Spans
 The absolute maximum moment in the spans occurs under the load
closest to the resultant force and placed in such a way that the
centreline of the span bisects the distance between that load and
the resultant
 3. Live Load placement Design Chart
 Design chart is used for preliminary design
 It is assumed that the maximum moment occurs at mid span.
 This is slightly less than design equation method
 Pedestrian Live Load, PL
Use when has sidewalk wider than 60cm

Consider simultaneously with truck LL

Pedestrian only: 3.6kN/m2

Pedestrian and / or bicycle:4.1kN/m2

No IM factor (neglect dynamic effect of pedestrian)

 Impact (Dynamic Load Allowance): IM
 Source of Dynamic Effects
 Hammering effect when wheels hit the discontinuities on the
road surface such as joint, crack, and potholes
 Dynamic response of the bridge due to vibrations induced by
traffic
 Actual calculation of dynamic effect is very difficult and involves a
lot of unknowns
 To make life simpler, we account for the dynamic effect of moving
vehicles by multiplying the static effect with a factor
 This IM factor in the cod was obtained from field measurements
 Impact(Dynamic Load Allowance) (IM)
 Ddyn = maximum deflection due to dynamic effect alone and

 Dstat = maximum deflection due to static effect alone,

 then the incremental effect of loading due to dynamic effect

Dynamic load allowance (IM) = (D dyn/ Dstat)*100 %

Component IM

Deck Joints – All Limit States 75%

All Other Components
15%
Fatigue and Fracture Limit State
33%
All Other Limit States
 Impact(Dynamic Load Allowance) (IM)
 IM is not applied to

 Pedestrian loads or

 to the design lane load

 Retaining walls not subject to vertical reactions from the

superstructure
 Foundation components that are entirely below ground level
 Reduce the above values by 50% for timber bridges
 IM for culverts and other buried structures, in %
 Multiple Presence Factor: m
If the design was done considering only one lane is loaded but the
road has a number of lanes, it is unlikely number of lanes will be
loaded simultaneously with the heavy loads.

Therefore, to account the reduced probability that all lanes will be

fully loaded at the same time, adjustment in the design load is
necessary.
 Braking Force: BRs
A longitudinal force resulting from a change in the direction of a
vehicle's movement

Applied horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the roadway

surface

Has noticeable effect on substructure

Shall be taken as 25 % of the axle weights of the design truck or

tandem per lane placed in all design lanes
 Centrifugal Force: CE
A lateral force resulting from a change in the direction of a
vehicle's movement

Applied horizontally at a distance 1.8 m above the roadway

surface

Has noticeable effect on substructure

Lane load is neglected in computing the centrifugal force

 Multiple Presence Factor
AASHTO [A3.6.1.1.2] and ERA design manual provides an
adjustment factor for the multiple presence (m-factor). A table for
these factors is provided
No. of Loaded Lanes 1 2 3 >3
Multiple Presence Factors: m 1.2 1.0 0.85 0.65

 The multiple presence factors in table above were developed based

on an ADTT (Average Daily Truck Traffic) of 5000 trucks in one
direction
 If 100 ≤ ADTT ≤ 1000; 95 % of the specified force effect shall
be used; and
 If ADTT < 100; 90 % of the specified force effect shall be use
 Multiple Presence Factor
 No need to consider it when:

 Factors have been implicitly included (AASHTO girder

distribution )
 The fatigue limit state method of design is applied

 Need to consider it when

 GDF is determined by lever rule or computer application or FEM

 Static distribution factors are used or if the analysis is based on

refined methods
 The design of bearings and abutments for the braking forces
 Distribution of LL to Girders (DFs)
 A bridge usually have more than one girder so the question arise on
how to distribute the lane load to the girders
 Two main methods
 Using AASHTO’s table: for typical design, get an approximate
(conservative) value
 No need to consider multiple presence factor
 Refined analysis by using finite element method
 Need to consider multiple presence factor
 DFs are different for different kinds of superstructure system
 DFs are different for interior and exterior beam
 Distribution of LL to Girders (DFs)
 DFs are different for different superstructures and also for
interior and exterior girders

 Are determined for one lane loaded and two or more lanes loaded
case and the governing one is to be used for analysis.
AASHTO Girder Distribution Factor (DFs)
 Factors affecting distribution factors includes:
 Span length (L)
 Girder spacing (S)
 Modulus of elasticity of the girder and deck
 Moment of inertia and torsional inertia of the section
 Slab thickness (ts)
 Width (b), depth (d), and area of the beam (A)
 Number of design lanes (NL)

 Number of girders (Nb)

 Width of the bridge (w)
Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Moment in Interior Beam
Where
Distribution of Live Loads per Lane for Moment in Exterior Beams
Distribution of Live Load per Lane for Shear in Interior Beams
Distribution of Live Load Per Lane for Shear in Exterior Beams
 Distribution Factor Applicability
To use distribution factors, the following conditions must be met:

1) Width of deck constant

2) Number of beams > 4

3) Beams are parallel and have approximately the same stiffness

4) overhang, de, does not exceed 0.9m

5) Cross-section is consistent with one of the cross-sections

 Moment and Shear in a typical Girder
1. At any section, if not using AASHTOs GDF
 MLL+IM=DFs* (Mtruck/tandem* IM+Mlane)*m
 VLL+IM=DFs* (Vtruck/tandem* IM+Vlane)*m
2. At any section, using AASHTOs GDF
 MLL+IM=DFs* (Mtruck/tandem* IM+Mlane)
 VLL+IM=DFs* (Vtruck/tandem* IM+Vlane)

Live loads Place them to Multiply by IM

( truck, tandem, have max. static the concerning
lane loads) effect ones

Moment or Shear to Distribute the

be used for design of load to each
the girders girder
 Fatigue Load
 Repeated loading/ unloading of live loads can cause fatigue in
bridge components
 Fatigue load depends on two factors
 Magnitudes and configuration of load
 Use HS-20 design truck with 9m between 145kN axles for
determination of maximum effects load
 Frequency of occupancy
 shall be taken as the single-lane average Daily Truck traffic
(ADTT)
 Fatigue Load
 Where;
 ADTT= The number of trucks per day in one direction
averaged over the design life
 ADTTSL = The number of trucks per day in a single-lane
averaged over the design life
 P = Fraction of Truck Traffic in a Single Lane
 ADT = Average daily traffic in one direction from survey
 ADTT= fraction of truck * ADT
 ADTTSL =ADTT * P
Number of lane 1 2 3
Available to
truck
p 1.00 0.85 0.80
 Wind Load
 Horizontal load
 There are two types of wind loads on the structure
 Wind pressure on structure
 Wind load on vehicles bridge superstructure
 For small span bridge wind load do not control the design
 For long span bridge wind load is very important
 Water Load
 Typically consider in the design of substructures
(foundation, piers, abutment)
 Water loads may be categorized into:
 Static pressure (acting perpendicular to all surfaces)
 Buoyancy (vertical uplifting force)
 Stream pressure (acting in the direction of the
stream)
 Loads depends on the shape and size of the substructure
 Vehicular Collision Force: CT
 Bridge structures are very vulnerable to vehicle collisions
 We must consider the force due to vehicle collision and designed for it
 Typically considered in the design of substructures 9foundation, piers,
abutment)
 Vehicular Collision Force: CT
 The nature of the force is dynamic (impact), but for simplicity,
AASHTO allows us to consider it as equivalent static load
 Need not consider if the structure are not protected by:
 Embankment
 crash-resistance barrier 1.37m height located within 3m
 Any barriers of 1.07m height located more than 3m
 For piers and abutment located within 9m from edge of roadway or
15m from the centerline of railway truck
 Assume an equivalent static force of 1800kN acting
horizontally at 1.2m above ground
 Design Philosophy s
 A general statement for assuring safety in engineering design is that

Resistance (of material & x-section) ≥ Effect of applied load

 Two distinct procedures employed by engineers are:

1.Allowable stress Design (ASD)

2.Load & Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

 LRFD method of design ΦRn ≥ η Σ γi Qi

η = ηD ηR ηI ≥ 0.95

 Where ηD is the ductility factor, ηR is the redundancy factor and ηI is

the operational importance factor.
 Load Modifier
modifier value condition
1.00 Steel , timber , ductile concrete bridge
Ductility (ηD) 1.05 Non-ductile concrete bridge
0.95 Additional ductility-enhancing measures
1.00 Redundant
Redundancy
(ηR) 1.05 Non- redundant
0.95 Exceptional levels of redundancy
1.05 Important bridge, 500 ADT 40,00
Importance
(ηI) 1.00 Typical bridge, ADT > 40,00
0.95 Relatively less important bridge, ADT <500

 Beam type superstructure with 4 or more beams per span are

considered redundant
 For all other limit states: ηD = ηR = ηI = 1.00
The limit states considered in LRFD bridge design:

 Strength: design to ensure that strength and stability

 Service: design to restrict stresses, deformations, and
crack
 Extreme event: ensure the structural survival of a bridge
during a major earthquake or flood, possibly under
scoured conditions
 Fatigue and fracture: design to limit growth under
repetitive loads to prevent fracture
 Load Factors for Permanent Loads
Use One of These at a Time
Type of Load
Maximum Minimum
DC: Component and Attachments 1.25 0.90
DD: Downdrag 1.80 0.45
DW: Wearing Surfaces and Utilities 1.50 0.65
EH: Horizontal Earth Pressure
1.50 0.90
 Active
1.35 0.90
 At-Rest
EV: Vertical Earth Pressure
 Overall Stability 1.35 N/A
 Retaining Structure 1.35 1.00
 Rigid Buried Structure 1.30 0.90
 Rigid Frames 1.35 0.90
 Flexible Buried Structures other than 1.95 0.90
Metal Box Culverts 1.50 0.90
 Flexible Metal Box Culverts
ES: Earth Surcharge 1.50 0.75
Load Combination and Load Factors
 Load Combination and Load Factors
 BR = vehicular braking force
 CE = vehicular centrifugal force  FR = friction
 CR = creep  IM = vehicular dynamic load allowance
 CT = vehicular collision force  LL = vehicular live load
 DC = dead load of structural components  LS = live load surcharge
 DD = downdrag  PL = pedestrian live load
 DW = dead load of wearing surfaces and  SE = settlement
utilities  SH = shrinkage
 EH = horizontal earth pressure load  TG = temperature gradient
 EL = accumulated locked-in effects  TU = uniform temperature
resulting from the construction process  WA = water load and stream pressure
 EQ = earthquake load  WL = wind on live load
 ES = earth surcharge load  WS = wind load on structure
 EV = vertical pressure from dead load of
earth fill

For example, for Strength I Limit State Combination

1.25DC + 1.50DW + 1.75(LL+IM)+ve Permanent L+ -veLive L
0.9DC + 0.65DW + 1.75(LL+IM) -ve Permanent L+ -veLive L
END