Have you ever wondered why you look

like your parents? Or why you have

similar traits with them? How are
these traits passed on from them to
you or your siblings?
• The study of how
we and other living
things receive
common or similar
traits from the
previous
generation was
pioneered by
Gregor Mendel
(1822-1884) on his
experiments in
garden peas.
• In Grade 8, you learned that
in sexual reproduction,
heredity works through the
combination of separate
factors, and not by blending
the inherited characters from
parents. These “factors” were
then called “gene”, a
hereditary unit found in
chromosome that contains
the DNA of every living
things which determines an
organism’s characteristics.
• You have learned in Grade
9 the different patterns of
Non-Mendelian Genetics.
You were also able to
describe the DNA structure
and learned that genes
contain the genetic
information necessary for
the construction and
operation of an organism.
• How will an organism behave and looks like is
determined by the genetic information contained in
the molecule called DNA which is passed on from
parents to offspring. Using the information from
DNA, let us learn how protein is made, which is
very essential for the different processes in our
body and how these proteins may change its
structure and function that affects the entirety of
an organism.
 DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID (DNA)

located in the nucleus of a cell double helix ladder-like structure

the building blocks of DNA are the

nucleotides (each composed of a across the helical structure
phosphate group), a deoxyribose follows the base sequence
sugar and four nitrogenous bases pairing adenine-thymine (A-T)
adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine and guanine-cytosine (G-C)
(T) and cytosine (C).
 RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)

• located in the • single stranded • contains ribose

cytoplasm of the cell structure sugar

• RNA does not • the base sequence

• its four nitrogenous
contain the base pairing is adenine-
bases are adenine (A),
thymine (T), instead uracil (A-U) and
guanine (G), uracil
it contains a similar guanine-cytosine (G-
(U), and cytosine (C)
base uracil (U) C).
 RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)

Major types include:

a. messenger RNA b. transfer RNA (tRNA) c. Ribosomal RNA

(mRNA) – the carrier of – translator of the (rRNA) – forms the
information from DNA genetic message carried structural unit of
to ribosomes. by mRNA through ribosomes.
protein synthesis.
 THE
STRUCTURE
OF DNA AND
RNA
 ACTIVITY #4

•GETTING TO KNOW THE DNA

AND RNA STRUCTURE
• Let us now
describe the
process of DNA
replication,
transcription and
translation in
protein synthesis.
• Prior to cell division (mitosis
or meiosis), DNA is copied
during interphase. The
making of exact copies of
DNA is called DNA
replication. The structure
of DNA provides a
mechanism for making
accurate and identical
copies as the original
molecule.
DNA REPLICATION
• The enzyme helicase breaks the bond between
nitrogenous bases that results to the splitting of
the two strands of DNA.

• The nitrogenous bases attached to each of the

strands pair up with the free nucleotides in the
cytoplasm.

• DNA polymerase adds the complementary

nucleotides to form new strands.

• Two new DNA molecules are formed with a

parent strand in each molecule conserving the old
strand in each new molecule.
• After the replication of DNA, protein synthesis
takes place. This process occurs in the cell’s
ribosomes and involves the nucleic acids DNA
and RNA. It follows two major processes –
transcription and translation.
DNA TRANSCRIPTION
The RNA polymerase enzyme binds and opens the DNA
molecule to be transcribed.

The RNA polymerase slides along the DNA strand and links
the free RNA nucleotides to pair with the nitrogenous bases
of the complementary DNA strand. Hence, if the sequence of
bases on the DNA strand were CCG TTA CAT, the sequence
of bases on the RNA strand would be GGC AAU GUA.

Upon completion of the base pairing, RNA molecule breaks

away and the DNA strands rejoin. The RNA leaves the
nucleus and goes to the cytoplasm.
DNA TRANSLATION

mRNA binds to a ribosome as the process of translation starts.

The tRNA molecules that carries a specific amino acid, approach the
ribosome.

The tRNA anticodon pairs with the first mRNA (start) codon AUG to
form the initiation complex. The two molecules temporarily join
together.
DNA TRANSLATION

AUG is usually the first codon on mRNA which codes for the amino acid methionine. It signals the start of
protein synthesis. Then, the ribosome slides along the mRNA to the next codon.

A new tRNA molecule that carries an amino acid pairs with the second mRNA codon.

When the first and second amino acids are in place, an enzyme joins them by forming a peptide bond
between them.

As the process continues, a chain of amino acids is formed until the ribosome reaches a stop codon (e.g.,
UAA, UAG, UGA) on the mRNA strand. The polypeptide chain is released and protein synthesis is now
complete.
• Now that you have
understood how a protein is
made using information
from DNA, let us learn how
mutations may cause
changes in the structure
and function of a protein.
• A mutation takes place when there is
a change in the sequence of
nitrogenous bases in the DNA. A
mistake in the transcription of
genetic information from DNA to RNA
or an error in the pairing of codons
and anticodons may cause changes
in the kind, sequence and number of
amino acids of proteins synthesized
by cells.
• This results to production of an incorrect
protein that has a different phenotype
from what is normally expected. The
effects of mutations may be minor and
undetectable alteration or it can be a
drastic change that may be beneficial or
severe effects that results to abnormality
or even death. It may be induced by
factors called mutagens, commonly in
the form of toxic chemicals, and harmful
radiation that can promote growth and
development of cancer cells.
• Mutations may happen in sex cells (germline
mutation) or body cells (somatic mutation). When the
sequence of nucleotides within a gene in a sperm or
an egg cell is changed, the mutated gene becomes a
part of the genetic makeup of the offspring if these
cells are fertilized. Only mutations in sex cells are
passed on to offspring. On the other hand, mutations
in body cells are not passed on to the next
generation. It only affects the original mutant cell
and its mitotic descendants within the affected
organism.
• There are two
types of
mutations that
can occur in sex
cells:
chromosomal
mutation and
gene mutation.
 A. CHROMOSOMAL MUTATION

• During cell division (mitosis or meiosis), an error may occur during

the process, changing parts of a chromosome or the entire set of
chromosome itself. Two types of chromosomal mutation are known:
numerical mutation and structural mutation.
• When a homologous chromosome or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate during mitosis or
meiosis, numerical mutation takes place. The addition or deletion of the chromosome number is
called aneuploidy. Nondisjunction during the division of sex cells (egg or sperm) will produce
abnormal gametes that in turn produce abnormal offspring. Monosomy is the deletion of
chromosome from the normal chromosome number. On the other hand, trisomy is the addition of
one chromosome to the normal chromosome number of an organism. In humans, both monosomy
and trisomy can be disruptive and in most cases, can kill the embryo. There are certain
chromosome pairs that an offspring can survive, but with severe abnormalities or developmental
difficulties such as mental retardation and sterility. Down syndrome is an example of numerical
mutation (trisomy) that involves the nondisjunction of the 21st pair of human chromosome.
• When nondisjunction involves an entire set
of chromosomes, it is called polyploidy.
Organisms with extra sets or with several
complete sets of chromosomes are said to be
polyploid. Polyploidy is very beneficial to
plants since it has been an important source
of genetic variation and polyploid plants are
healthier, larger and more resilient. In
contrast, polyploidy is often fatal to animals.
• Structural mutation occurs when
DNA structure changes. There are
four types of structural mutations in
chromosomes: translocation,
inversion, deletion and duplication.
• Translocation – transfer of genetic
material between two non-homologous
chromosomes that involves a single
break in each of the two chromosomes.
Example: the movement of a segment of
human chromosome 22 to chromosome
9 that results to myeloid leukemia.
• Inversion – when two chromosomes
break, the broken ends reattach in a
reverse order. This change in the
arrangement of genes may result in
phenotypic changes that usually are
not damaging.
• Deletion – the consequent loss of one or
more genes due to breaks in a
chromosome. Example: the loss of a
segment of human chromosome 5 results
to cri du chat where affected babies have
abnormally small head, widely spaced
eyes, mental retardation, and a
monotone, weak cat-like cry.
• Duplication – when portions of
chromosomes are present in multiple
copies. Unlike deletion which has
severe effects on humans, its effects
are less severe and are difficult to
detect.
 B. GENE MUTATION

• In the process of DNA replication and transcription, some changes in

the DNA sequence that make up a gene can take place. This type of
mutation has two categories: base substitution and base insertion
or deletion.
 BASE SUBSTITUTION/POINT
MUTATION.

• This occurs when one nucleotide is substituted with another that results in the
mutated codon coding for the same type of amino acid as the original codon. If
the change in the codon both code for the same amino acid, there will be no
effect on the organism. However, if the substitution involves an alteration in the
sequence of amino acid, it may have some effects on the functions of a protein
and in some cases, may even be crucial to the life of the organism. Example:
sickle-cell anemia results when valine is incorporated in one portion of the
polypeptides in the hemoglobin molecule instead of glutamine.
 BASE INSERTION OR DELETION.

• This mutation is often more disastrous than a base substitution because it

involves insertion or deletion of a number of nucleotides. Since mRNA is
read in codons or set of three, the reading frame of the gene is altered when
insertion or deletion occurs.