Chapter 7

Chapter 7:
The excretory system removes waste products

7.1 The organs that process and remove wastes
Several organs in the body are involved either in the processing of wastes or
in the excretion of those wastes.
•Lungs: involved in the excretion of the carbon dioxide that is produced by
all body cells during cellular respiration
•Liver: processes many substances so that they can be excreted
•Sweat glands in the skin: secrete sweat, which is largely water, for cooling
•Alimentary canal: passes out bile pigments, which enter the small intestine
with the bile
•Kidneys: principal excretory organs, responsible for maintaining the
constant concentration of materials in the body fluids.
7.2 The liver and skin
Liver
The liver is located in the upper abdominal cavity. It is a very large organ
with a host of different functions, one of which is the preparation of materials
for excretion.
The liver plays an important role in processing chemicals into a safer form.
For example, it converts ammonia produced from proteins into the safer
form of urea by a process called deamination.
Deamination uses enzymes to remove the amino group (NH2) from the
amino acids. Once the amino group has been removed, it is converted by
the liver cells to ammonia (NH3) and then finally to urea, where it is
eliminated from the body in urine.
The remaining part of the amino acid, which is mainly carbon and hydrogen,
is converted into a carbohydrate that can be readily broken down by the
cells to release energy, carbon dioxide and water.
Deamination:
The liver also:

•detoxifies alcohol and other drugs
•deactivates many hormones and converts them into a form that can be
excreted by the liver
•breaks down haemoglobin from dead red blood cells to produce bile
pigments, which are then passed out of the body with the faeces.
Skin
The main functions of the skin are to provide a protective covering over the
surface of the body and to regulate body temperature, but it also has an
important role in excretion.
Sweat glands secrete about 500 mL of water per day. Dissolved in the water
are sodium chloride, lactic acid and urea – these are being secreted from
the body.
Sweat glands are located in the lower layers of the skin. A duct carries the
sweat to a hair follicle or to the skin surface where it opens at a pore. Cells
surrounding the glands are able to contract and squeeze the sweat to the
skin surface.
The structure of
skin, including sweat
glands
7.3 The kidneys
Kidneys
The kidneys are located in the abdomen and each kidney is approximately
11 cm long. The kidneys, bladder and their associated ducts make up the
urinary system.
The kidney is enclosed by the renal capsule. Under this is the outer renal
cortex, the inner renal medulla, and then the renal pelvis sits in the concave
side of the kidney. The renal hilum lies on the concave surface of the kidney,
and is where the vessels enter and leave. The medulla consists of a number
of renal pyramids, which are separated by renal columns, where the blood
vessels lie.
7.3 The kidneys
7.3 The kidneys
Structure of nephrons
The kidney is composed of a large number of microscopic structures called
nephrons and collecting ducts. The nephron is the functional unit of the
kidney, as it is where the urine is formed. There are about 1.2 million
nephrons in each human kidney, and each is surrounded by a complex
network of blood capillaries.
They are responsible for removing wastes from the blood and regulating
blood composition. Blood enters the kidney through the renal arteries.
Approximately 1.2 L of blood pass through the two kidneys every minute.
Blood enters the nephron through the afferent arteriole. It is filtered in the
glomerulus, a network of capillaries, and then exits via the efferent arteriole.
7.3 The kidneys
7.3 The kidneys
Production of urine
The formation of urine by the nephrons of the kidneys involves three major
processes: glomerular filtration, selective reabsorption and secretion by the
tubules.
Glomerular filtration takes place in the renal corpuscle when fluid is forced
out of the blood and is collected by the glomerular capsule.
Many of the components of the plasma that are filtered from the capillaries
of the glomerulus are of use to the body, therefore some selective
reabsorption of the filtrate must take place, returning them to the blood in
the peritubular capillaries. These processes are carried out by the cells that
line the renal tubule.
Tubular secretion adds materials to the filtrate from the blood, such as
potassium, hydrogen ions and creatinine. This process maintains blood pH
and urine pH.
7.3 The kidneys
7.3 The kidneys
Water and other substances not reabsorbed drain from the collecting ducts
into the renal pelvis. From the pelvis, the urine drains into the ureters and is
pushed to the urinary bladder where it is stored. The two ureters, one from
each kidney, extend to the urinary bladder. The urethra carries urine from
the bladder to the exterior of the body.
Summary of the functioning of the kidney

7.3 The kidneys
Composition of urine
Normal urine is a solution of water with dissolved wastes, such as urea and
creatinine, and ions such as sodium, chloride and potassium, as well as low
levels of other solutes.
A healthy adult produces about 1.5 L of urine a day, but this varies
depending on diet, environment and other factors.
Composition of urine (guide only)

7.4 Effects of lifestyle on excretion
Kidney stones
Kidney stones are formed from solid crystals that build up inside the kidneys.
They usually form when urine becomes too concentrated.
Small crystals may pass unnoticed, or crystals may combine to form stones.
Large stones can get stuck in the ureter, bladder or urethra, causing intense
pain, and may need to be broken up with sound waves or physically
removed during surgery.
Kidney failure
One in three adult Australians is at risk of developing kidney disease. Most
kidney diseases affect the glomeruli, reducing their ability to filter the blood.
Protein and sometimes red blood cells may leave the blood at the
glomerulus and will then be present in the urine. If excessive proteins are
lost in the urine, blood protein levels fall and fluid accumulates in the tissues,
causing swelling of the hands, feet, face or other areas.
When the kidneys lose their ability to excrete waste and to control the level
of fluid in the body, this is known as kidney failure. Factors such as diabetes,
high blood pressure or kidney diseases slowly destroy the nephrons in the
kidneys. Eventually, the only way to maintain life is by dialysis or a kidney
transplant.
Lifestyle measures to maintain healthy kidneys include: maintain a healthy
diet and weight, abstain from smoking, drink water instead of sugary drinks,
drink alcohol in moderation and do not use performance-enhancing drugs.
Liver disease
When the liver is not able to function effectively, it is unable to process
toxins ready for elimination. Liver disease can be caused by infection,
autoimmune problems, genetic disorders, cancer, and lifestyle factors such
as excessive alcohol consumption and a fatty diet.
Symptoms include a yellow tinge to the skin (jaundice), abdominal pain and
swelling, swelling in the legs and feet, nausea or vomiting, fatigue, dark
urine, and faeces that are pale or dark coloured.

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Chapter 7:

The excretory system removes waste products

The liver also:

Summary of the functioning of the kidney

Composition of urine (guide only)

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