INTERATOMIC FORCES

What kind of force holds the atoms

together in a solid?

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 Interatomic Bonding
 All of the mechanisms which cause bonding between the atoms derive

from electrostatic interaction between nuclei and electrons.

 The differing strengths and differing types of bond are determined by the

particular electronic structures of the atoms involved.

 The existence of a stable bonding arrangement implies that the spatial

configuration of positive ion cores and outer electrons has less total

energy than any other configuration.

 The energy deficience of the configuration compared with isolated atoms

is known as binding energy or cohesive energy.

 This Binding energy ranges in value from 0.1 eV/atom for solids (e.g.,
Weak Van der Waals) to 7eV/atom or more in some covalent and ionic
compounds and some metals.
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 Energies of Interactions Between
Atoms
• The energy of the crystal is lower than that of the free atoms by an amount equal to
the energy required to pull the crystal apart into a set of free atoms. This is called the
binding (cohesive) energy of the crystal.

– NaCl is more stable than a collection of free Na and Cl.

– Ge crystal is more stable than a collection of free Ge.

Cl Na NaCl

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Non metals
 CHEMICAL BONDING

• IONIC BONDS
• COVALENT BONDS
• HYDROGEN BONDS
• METALLIC BONDS
• Van der Waals BONDS
 1 - IONIC BONDING
 In ionic bonding, an atom of a nonmetal takes one or more
electrons from an atom of a metal so both atoms end up
with eight valence electrons
 Ionic bonding is the electrostatic force of attraction between
positively and negatively charged ions (between non-metals
and metals).
 These ions have been produced as a result of a transfer of
electrons between two atoms with a large difference in
electronegativities (Electronegativity is a measure of the
tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of electrons).
 IONIC BOND FORMATION

Neutral atoms come near each other.

Electron(s) are transferred from the Metal atom
to the Non-metal atom. They stick together
because of electrostatic forces, like magnets.
 IONIC BONDING
The metallic elements have only up to the valence electrons in
their outer shell will lose their electrons and become positive ions,
whereas electronegative elements tend to acquire additional
electrons to complete their octed and become negative ions, or
anions.

Na Cl

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 IONIC BONDING

Metals will tend to lose electrons

and become
POSITIVE CATIONS

Normal sodium atom loses one electron to become sodium ion

 IONIC BONDING

Nonmetals will tend to gain

electrons and become
NEGATIVE ANIONS

Normal chlorine atom gains an electron to become a chloride ion

 IONIC BONDING
ION – Any atom with more or less electrons that
it is supposed to have

Na is called a sodium ion

+1

The +1 symbol means it

has lost one electron
 IONIC BONDING

Mg is called a magnesium ion

+2

The +2 symbol means it

has lost two electron
 IONIC BONDING
S is called a sulfide ion
-2

The -2 symbol means it

has gained two electron
 IONIC BONDING
Cl is called a chloride ion
-1

The -1 symbol means it

has gained one electron
 IONIC BONDING
POLYATOMIC IONS--a group of
atoms that act like one ion
NH4+1--Ammonium ion
CO3-2--Carbonate ion
PO4-3--Phosphate ion
SO4-2--Sulphate ion
NO3-1--Nitrate ion
IONIC BONDING

SODIUM SULFATE
IONIC BONDING
 Properties of Ionic Compounds
Property Explanation
The melting and boiling points of ionic compounds are
Melting point high because a large amount of thermal energy is
and boiling point required to separate the ions which are bound by strong
electrical forces.
Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity when a
potential is applied because there are no mobile charged
Electrical
particles.
conductivity
No free electrons causes the ions to be firmly bound and
cannot carry charge by moving.
Most ionic compounds are hard; the surfaces of their
crystals are not easily scratches. This is because the ions
Hardness
are bound strongly to the lattice and aren't easily
displaced.
Most ionic compounds are brittle; a crystal will smash or
break if we try to distort it. This happens because
Brittleness
distortion cause ions of like charges to come close
together then sharply repel.
Ionic solids are brittle

+ - + -
- + - +
+ - + -
- + - +
 Ionic solids are brittle

• Strong Repulsion breaks crystal apart.

+ -
+ -
- + - +
+ - + -
- + - +
 2 - COVALENT BONDING
 In covalent bonding, an atom of one nonmetal shares one
or more electrons with an atom of another nonmetal, so
that both atoms end up with eight valence electrons
 Covalent bonding takes place between atoms with small
differences in electronegativity which are close to each
other in periodic table.
 The covalent bonding is formed by sharing of outer shell
electrons (i.e., s and p electrons) between atoms rather
than by electron transfer.
COVALENT BONDING

e
 COVALENT BOND FORMATION

When one nonmetal shares one or

more electrons with an atom of
another nonmetal so both atoms end
up with eight valence electrons
 COVALENT BONDING
IS THE COMPOUND
A COVALENT COMPOUND?

NONMETAL NONMETAL

YES, since it is made of only nonmetal elements

 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second Fluorine atom also has seven
 They share electrons
 Both Fluorine atoms end with full orbitals

F F
8 Valence 8 Valence
electrons electrons
Water

HO Carbon dioxide
H 8 valence
electrons

O C O
 Polar Bonds
• When the atoms in a bond are the same, the
electrons are shared equally.
• This is a nonpolar covalent bond.
• When two different atoms are connected, the atoms
may not be shared equally.
• This is a polar covalent bond.
• How do we measure how strong the atoms pull on
electrons?
• This can be determined from differences in
electronegativity.
 Electronegativity
• A measure of how strongly the atoms attract
electrons in a bond.
• The bigger the electronegativity difference
the more polar the bond.
• 0.0 - 0.3 Covalent nonpolar
• 0.3 - 1.67 Covalent polar
• >1.67 Ionic
 How to show a bond is polar
 means a partially positive
 means a partially negative

  
H Cl
• The Cl pulls harder on the electrons
• The electrons spend more time near the Cl
 Property Explanation
Very high melting points because each atom is
bound by strong covalent bonds. Many covalent
Melting point
bonds must be broken if the solid is to be melted
and boiling point
and a large amount of thermal energy is required
for this.

Poor conductors because electrons are held either

Electrical
conductivity on the atoms or within covalent bonds. They
cannot move through the lattice.

They are hard because the atoms are strongly

Hardness
bound in the lattice, and are not easily displaced.

Covalent network substances are brittle. If

Brittleness sufficient force is applied to a crystal, covalent
bond are broken as the lattice is distorted.
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 3 - METALLIC BONDING
 Metallic bonding is the type of bonding found in metal elements.
This is the electrostatic force of attraction between positively
charged ions and delocalized outer electrons.

 The metallic bond is

weaker than the ionic and
the covalent bonds.
 METALLIC BONDING
 Valance electrons are loosely bound to the nucleus and therefore they
move freely through the metal and they are spread out among the
atoms in the form of a low-density electron cloud.

 A metallic bond result from the sharing of

a variable number of electrons by a
 + + +
variable number of atoms. A metal may
be described as a cloud of free electrons. + + +

 Therefore, metals have high electrical and + + +

thermal conductivity.
 METALLIC BONDING
 All valence electrons in a metal combine to form a “sea” of
electrons that move freely between the atom cores. The
more electrons, the stronger the attraction. This means the
melting and boiling points are higher, and the metal is
stronger and harder.
 The positively charged cores are held together by these
negatively charged electrons.
 The free electrons act as the bond (or as a “glue”) between
the positively charged ions.
 This type of bonding is nondirectional and is rather
insensitive to structure.
 As a result we have a high ductility of metals - the “bonds”
do not “break” when atoms are rearranged – metals can
experience a significant degree of plastic deformation.
 4 - VAN DER WAALS
BONDING
 It is a weak bond, with a typical strength of 0.2 eV/atom.

 It occurs between neutral atoms and molecules.

 The explanation of these weak forces of attraction is that there are

natural fluctuation in the electron density of all molecules and these
cause small temporary dipoles within the molecules. It is these
temporary dipoles that attract one molecule to another. They are called
van der Waals' forces.

 The bigger a molecule is, the easier it is to polarize (to form a dipole),
and so the van der Waal's forces get stronger, so bigger molecules
exist as liquids or solids rather than gases.
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 VAN DER WAALS BONDING
 The shape of a molecule influences its ability to form temporary dipoles. Long thin
molecules can pack closer to each other than molecules that are more spherical.
The bigger the 'surface area' of a molecule, the greater the van der Waal's forces
will be and the higher the melting and boiling points of the compound will be.
 Van der Waal's forces are of the order of 1% of the strength of a covalent bond.

Homonuclear molecules,
Heteronuclear molecules,
such as iodine, develop
such as H-Cl have permanent
temporary dipoles due to
dipoles that attract the opposite
natural fluctuations of electron
pole in other molecules.
density within the molecule
 VAN DER WAALS BONDING
 These forces are due to the electrostatic attraction between the
nucleus of one atom and the electrons of the other.

Van der waals interaction occurs generally between atoms which

have noble gas configuration.

van der waals

bonding

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 5 – HYDROGEN BONDING
 A hydrogen atom, having one electron, can be covalently bonded to only
one atom. However, the hydrogen atom can involve itself in an additional
electrostatic bond with a second atom of highly electronegative character
such as fluorine or oxygen. This second bond permits a hydrogen bond
between two atoms or structures.
 The strength of hydrogen bonding varies from 0.1 to 0.5 eV/atom.

 Hydrogen bonds connect water

molecules in ordinary ice. Hydrogen
bonding is also very important in
proteins and nucleic acids and
therefore in life processes.

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 Types of Bonding

Ionic Van Der Waals Metallic Covalent Hydrogen

Bonding Bonding Bonding Bonding Bonding
Low Melting Points

Low Melting Points Variable Melting Very High Melting

High Melting Point Soft and Brittle
Point Point
Soft and Brittle
Hard and Brittle Usually
Variable Very Hard
Non-Conducting
Non-Conducting Hardness
Usually not
Non conducting İce,
Ne, Ar, Kr and Xe Conducting Conducting
solid organic solids

Fe, Cu, Ag Diamond, Graphite

NaCl, CsCl, ZnS

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