CSEC Chemistry - Structure and Bonding

Ions
Tuesday, June 7, 2022 4:39 PM
Ions are charged atoms and molecules. The charge on an ion is also called its
valency. There are two types of ions:
Cations - These are positive ions which result when a metal atom loses
electrons
Anions - These are negative ions which result when a no-metal atom gains
electrons
The numerical value of valency is equal to the number of electrons lost or

gained.
Structure And Bonding Page 1

Intramolecular Bonding
Intramolecular bonding is the forces which hold together the atoms of a molecule. They bond
atoms together. There are three types of intramolecular bonding:
• Ionic Bonding
• Covalent Bonding
• Metallic Bonding
Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonding takes place between a non-metal and a metal. It involves the
transfer of electrons from the metal to the non-metal. E.g. the bonding between
sodium and chlorine in sodium chloride.
The sodium has an electronic configuration of 2.8.1. It must either gain 7

electrons or lose 1 in order to achieve a stable octet. The chlorine has an
electronic configuration of 2.8.7. It has to either lose 7 electrons or gain 1. It
would require less energy for the sodium to simply lose 1, and the chlorine to gain
1. The extra electron from the sodium is transferred to the chlorine. When the
sodium and chlorine achieve their stable octets, they become charged ions. Due
to their opposite charge, they are held together by electrostatic forces of
attraction.
Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons. It occurs between non-metals.
The atoms sharing these bonds may be of the same, or different types.
The most energy efficient way for non-metals to become stable is via the gain of
electrons. Since both atoms would need gain electrons, they share the electrons
between each other. E.g. O2

Metallic Bonding
Metallic bonding occurs between metal atoms. These types of atoms loose
electrons to form a stable octet.
These electrons are lost so that the atoms form cations. The delocalized electrons
form a negatively charged cloud. Because opposite charges attract, the cations
are re-attracted to the electron cloud. These electrons remain delocalized, so
metallic bonds can be described as positive metal cations surrounded by a sea of
delocalized electrons.
These free or delocalized electrons are responsible for the shiny colour of metals,
as well as their ability to conduct electricity. Two other properties of metals are
their insolubility in all solvents, and their high melting points.

Ionic Structures
Giant Ionic Structures

Sodium Chloride is a good example of a giant ionic structure made of a regular lattice of
alternating Na+ and Cl- ions, in three dimensions, extending over a huge number of ions. The
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the alternating positive and negative ions
hold the lattice together.
Simple physical properties of giant ionic compounds
Melting and Boiling Points

The forces between positive and negative ions in the lattice are strong and this leads to ionic
compounds having high melting and boiling points.
Brittleness
Giant ionic structures are quite hard, but are very brittle and can easily be broken into pieces
You can see that a small movement of any layer brings ions of the same charge next to each
other. You get massive repulsion, and the crystal would fall to pieces where that shift has
happened
Solubility in Water
Most ionic compounds are soluble in water. Ionic compounds are polar, and as such, dissolve
Most ionic compounds are soluble in water. Ionic compounds are polar, and as such, dissolve
in polar solvents like water.
Bond polarity originates from a difference in electronegativity between the bonded elements.
Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of

electrons. The most electronegative elements are O, N and F. Consider water:
Since O-H is a covalent bond, we would have expected that a shared pair of electrons would lie
around the middle of the two elements, but since H is a very small atom bonded to one of the
most highly electronegative elements, O, there is an asymmetric distribution of charge
between the elements. This leads to the formation of partially positive and partially negative
regions. This is described as Polar.
Ionic compounds are similar as they have positive and negative regions. Therefore, they
dissolve in polar solvents.
Water is covalently bonded yet is polar. This means that other covalent molecules may be
polar and therefor soluble in polar solvents instead of non-polar, such as most organic
solvents.
Conduction of Electricity
When something conducts electricity, electrons are flowing through it. The conduction of
electricity requires either free electrons, or free ions.
Solid ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity as there are neither free electrons nor ions.
When ionic compounds are molten or dissolved, their ions become mobile allowing them to
conduct electricity.

Covalent Structures
Saturday, 11 June 2022 3:27 PM
A giant covalent structure is one in which the atoms are joined by covalent
bonds over a huge (but variable) number of atoms. It is not a molecule because
the number of atoms joined up in a diamond, say, is completely variable,
depending on the size of crystal.
These structures may be described as 'giant covalent structures'. This is

somewhat misleading. A molecule contains a fixed number of atoms (even if
that number is very large), while in giant covalent structures like diamond, the
number of Carbon atoms varies entirely.
Carbon has an electronic configuration of 2.4. In diamond, each carbon forms

four single bonds with four other carbons.
In the diagram some carbon atoms only seem to be forming two bonds (or
even one bond), but that's because we are only showing a small part of the
whole structure. Every carbon atom, until you get a crystal edge, will be joined
to four others.
The Physical Properties of a Diamond

• Sublimes at normal temperatures at nearly 4000°C. Very strong carbon-
carbon bonds have to be broken throughout the structure before
sublimation occurs.
• It is very hard (hardest substance on earth). This is due to the strong
covalent bonds operating in 3 dimensions.
• Doesn't conduct electricity. This is because all electrons are held tightly in
place and aren't free to move
• Is insoluble in water and organic solvents. There are no possible
attractions which could occur between solvent molecules and carbon
atoms which could outweigh the attraction between the covalently
bonded carbon atoms.

Giant Covalent Structure of Graphite
Graphite is another allotrope of carbon. Allotropes are different forms of the
same element in the same physical state.
So carbon and diamond are both allotropes of carbon, since they are both
chemically carbon, solids, and obviously different.
Each carbon atom uses 3 of its electrons to form covalent bonds to its 3
neighbours. That leaves the fourth electron in the bonding level. These 'spare'
electrons in each carbon atom become delocalized across the whole of the
sheet of atoms in one layer. They are no longer associated with any particular
atom or pair of atoms, they are free to wander throughout the whole sheet.
Delocalized electrons are free to move anywhere within the sheet. There is,
however, no direct contact between delocalized electrons and those in a
neighbouring sheet.
The atoms within a sheet are held together by strong covalent bonds, stronger,
in fact than those in diamond because of the additional bonding from the
delocalized electrons. The forces of attraction between layers are much
weaker though.
Physical Properties of Graphite

• Very high melting point due to the strong covalent bonds
• Black, opaque, shiny
• Has a soft slippery feel and is used in pencils and as dry lubricants in things
like locks.
• Has lower density than diamond, soft and brittle
• Insoluble in water and organic solvents. No possible attractions could
occur between solvent molecules and carbon atoms which would
outweigh the attraction of the covalent bonds between the carbons
• Conducts electricity. The delocalized electrons are free to move
throughout the sheets. If the graphite is connected to a circuit, electrons
throughout the sheets. If the graphite is connected to a circuit, electrons
can fall off one end of the sheet and be replaced with new ones at the end
of the sheet.

Intermolecular Forces
Thursday, 12 May 2022 11:07 AM
Intermolecular forces are those that act between molecules. There are three
main types of intermolecular forces:
• Van der Waals forces
• Permanent dipole-dipole interactions
• Hydrogen bonds
Van Der Waals Forces

These are the weakest of the forces. They act between all particles whether
they are polar or non-polar. They exist due to the movement of electrons that
in turn cause instantaneous dipoles. These induce dipoles in neighbouring
molecules.
Permanent Dipole-Dipole Interactions

These occur between polar covalent molecules, i.e. those containing different
elements, an example is the forces between the poles in a molecule such as H-
Cl
Hydrogen Bonds
This is a particular sort of comparatively strong dipole-dipole interaction
between molecules containing hydrogen with nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine.
These bonds result from the lone pairs of electrons on the nitrogen, oxygen or
fluorine atoms, so the hydrogen atom can be considered as acting as a bridge
between to electronegative atoms.
This form of bonding can have significant effects on the physical properties of
the compound concerned. For example, based on its molecular mass, water
would be expected to exist as a gas at room temperature. The fact that it exists
as a liquid at room temperature is due to the hydrogen bonding present. As a
result of hydrogen bonding, water possesses surface tension, which enables
some insects to walk on its surface. Finally the fact that ice is less dense than
liquid water and floats on the surface is also a result of hydrogen bonding.

Ionic Equations
Sunday, 12 June 2022 2:43 PM
In many equations there are ions which remain unchanged in state or in valency across an
equation. These are called spectator ions. If these are removed from the equation, and ionic
equation is formed. The steps in writing an ionic equation are:

CSEC Chemistry - Structure and Bonding

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Ions

Tuesday, June 7, 2022 4:39 PM

The numerical value of valency is equal to the number of electrons lost or

Structure And Bonding Page 1

The sodium has an electronic configuration of 2.8.1. It must either gain 7

Structure And Bonding Page 2

Structure And Bonding Page 3

Giant Ionic Structures

Simple physical properties of giant ionic compounds

Melting and Boiling Points

Electronegativity is a measure of the tendency of an atom to attract a bonding pair of

Structure And Bonding Page 5

These structures may be described as 'giant covalent structures'. This is

Carbon has an electronic configuration of 2.4. In diamond, each carbon forms

The Physical Properties of a Diamond

Structure And Bonding Page 6

Physical Properties of Graphite

Structure And Bonding Page 8

Van Der Waals Forces

Permanent Dipole-Dipole Interactions

Structure And Bonding Page 9

Structure And Bonding Page 10

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