BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

All atoms try to gain maximum stability or lowest energy. The noble gases are very stable, and our
model of bonding assumes that atoms try to gain maximum stability by getting the same valence
electron configuration as their nearest noble gases.

All noble gases have 8 electrons in their valence shell (2 for He). Atoms can achieve a stable octet
in their valence shell by either losing their valence electrons, gaining extra valence electrons or
sharing some of their valence electrons with another atom.

The three main types of bonds between atoms are:

Metallic bonds

These form between metal atoms. The valence electrons of these atoms are very mobile or
delocalised. Metallic bonds result from the attraction between these delocalised electrons and the
positively charged metallic ions.

Ionic bonds

These form between metal and non-metal atoms. A transfer of electrons between these atoms
creates positive and negative ions, each having an inert gas electron configuration. Ionic bonds
result from the strong attraction between these oppositely charged ions.

Covalent bonds

These form between non-metal atoms. Electrons are shared in a common bond so that each atom
can achieve an inert gas configuration. Covalent bonds result from the strong electrostatic
attraction between the shared electrons and the protons of adjacent atoms.

IONIC BONDING AND IONIC SOLIDS

Ionic bonds occur between metals and non-metals. Common table salt (NaCl) is a typical example
of an ionic solid. It consists of sodium and chloride ions arranged in a regular lattice. These ions
are formed by the transfer of electrons form the metal atom sodium, to the non-metal atom
chlorine.
 BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

Solid sodium chloride consists of an infinite array of sodium and chloride ions. They are held
together by strong electrostatic attraction. Each Na+ ion is surrounded by six Cl – ions while each Cl
–
ion is surrounded by six Na+ ions.

The nature of the ionic lattice structure leads to the following physical properties:

 High melting and boiling points – Large amounts of energy are needed to melt ionic solids
like sodium chloride. This energy is required to overcome the strong electrostatic forces
between the oppositely charge ions.
 Brittleness – Ionic solids are very hard, brittle and difficult to scratch due to the strong
electrostatic forces. They are not malleable like metals because if layers of ions are forced
to slide over each other repulsion occurs between the like charges.

 Good conductivity when molten or in aqueous solution – Ionic solids cannot conduct
electricity since all the ions are in fixed positions and are not free to move. When molten
however, the ions are mobile and will conduct a current. If the ionic solid is soluble in water
they create a conducting solution since the ions are free to migrate through the water.
 BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

METALLIC BONDING

Metals are characterised by low ionisation energy which indicates that their valence electrons are
not strongly held. In metallic structures these electrons become delocalised and not attached to
any atom. This results in the atoms achieving a stable octet structure, becoming positive ions and
attracted to the mobile delocalised electrons. Metallic bonds, then, are due to the mutual attraction
between the delocalised valence electrons and the positively charged metal ions (cations).

PROPERTIES OF METALS EXPLAINED

The properties of metals can be generally explained by the metallic bonding model outlined above.
These properties include:

 High electrical conductivity – Since the valence electrons in metals are highly mobile, any
applied voltage will cause a flow of charge.
 High thermal conductivity – When a substance is heated the particles vibrate more rapidly.
In a metal lattice the delocalised electrons readily transfer this energy as they move through
the lattice.
 Malleable and ductile – This means that metals can be hammered into sheets or drawn into
wires. This is possible since metallic bonds are non-directional and layers of positive ions
can simply slip over each other. The electrostatic forces between the positive ions and
valence electrons still operate.
 BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

 Wide range of melting points and boiling points – The strong electrostatic bonding means
that melting and boiling points are high. The greater the number of valence electrons the
stronger the bond. Hence M.P. and B.P. are higher for (say) group 2 elements than group 1
elements.
 Relatively high density – Strong electrostatic bonding and close packing of the ions that
metals are generally dense. This increases with the number of valence electron per atom.

COVALENT BONDING

Covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms. That is, they form between atoms having similar,
but high electronegativity. This means that neither atom can gain electrons from the other but
instead the electrons are shared. In this way each atom is able to achieve a stable octet
configuration.

A covalent bond consists of a shared pair of electrons. It results from the strong electrostatic
attraction between the shared electrons and the positive nuclei of each atom.
 BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

COVALENT MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES

Atoms making up a molecule such as chlorine gas (Cl 2) are very strongly held together by a
covalent bond. However, the force of attraction between two neighbouring chlorine molecules
(intermolecular force) is very weak.

This explains why many molecular substances such as hydrogen (H 2), nitrogen (N2) and carbon
dioxide (CO2) are gases at normal temperature.

Intermolecular forces vary greatly between different molecules due to such factors as molecular
size, shape or polarity.

Although there is a great variety in the properties of molecular substances, we can say that in
general they have:

 low melting/boiling points

 do not conduct electricity (solid or liquid)
 are soft and easily scratched
 low solubility, forming non-conducting solutions (except where molecules react with water
forming ions and a conducting solution.

WRITING CORRECT FORMULA

Covalent molecular substances

These are composed of non-metal atoms covalently bonded to other non-metal atoms. The
formula and name indicates the number and type of atoms present in a molecule of that substance.

Rules for naming covalent molecular substances

 The element that is closer to the left side of the periodic table is named first and it keeps its
normal name. (If both elements are in the same group – the element further towards the
bottom is named first.)
 The element closer to the right-hand side of the periodic table is named second and has the
end of its name changed to end in – ide.
 Prefixes are used to indicate if more than one atom of that element is present in the
molecule.
 If there is only one atom of the first element, the prefix mono is not used.
 Molecules composed of one element only, get the name of that element.
 BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

Ionic substances

These are composed of metal ions bonded to non-metal ions. These substances form immense
lattices with countless numbers of ions. The formula of ionic substances provides the ratio of ions
present, NOT the actual number of ions present.

Rules for writing formulae for ionic substances

 The positive ion (usually a metal ion) is written first.

 The negative ion (non-metal ion) is written second.
 The number of each ion is adjusted so that total positive charge equals the total negative
charge. Subscripts are used to indicate the number of each ion present.

WORKED EXAMPLES

Write the correct formula for calcium bromide.

Write the correct formula for aluminium nitrate.

Write the correct formula for aluminium oxide.

 BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

Rules for naming ionic compounds

 The metal, or positive ion is named first, and it keeps its normal name.
 The non-metal, or negative ion is named second and has the end of its name written as …
ide, … ate or … ite (refer to valency table of ions).
 If the metal ion has several valencies possible, indicate its valency using roman numerals.

WORKED EXAMPLE

Name the following ionic compounds:

(a) AlCl3: Correct name is aluminium chloride

(b) Mg3(PO4)2: Correct name is magnesium phosphate

(c) CuO: Correct name is copper (II) oxide

(d) FeO: Correct name is iron (II) oxide

(e) Fe2O3: Correct name is iron (III) oxide

QUESTIONS

1. Explain the nature of the force holding an ionic crystal together.

Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions

2. Explain why ionic substances such as magnesium chloride can conduct electricity in the molten
state but not in the solid state.

The ions are dissociated in molten state but not in solid state. In molten state the ions are able to
move about the liquid freely and hence can conduct electricity. In the solid phase, these ions can
only vibrate about fixed positions and hence cannot conduct electricity

3. Explain in terms of their bonding why metals are good conductors of electricity.

Metals are bonded by delocalised electrons meaning they are mobile, electricity is essentially the
flow of electrons therefore metals are good conductors of electricity as electrons can flow easily
through the metal body.
 BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

4. Sodium and magnesium are both metals and have similar sized atoms. However, magnesium
has a much higher melting point (650°C) than sodium (98°C). Can you explain this difference?

Magnesium has more electrons therefore it has a stronger metallic bond therefore more heat
energy is required for the metal to melt. Hence, electrostatic attraction is much greater in
magnesium than sodium.

5. Why do non-metals share pairs of valence electrons?

To achieve their inert state, non-metals only rip electrons off metals so when they are two non-
metals they instead share valence electrons to achieve inertness

6. Name the following molecules that are made of non-metal atoms only.

(a) CO: carbon monoxide

(b) CO2: carbon dioxide

(c) Br2: bromine gas

(d) P2O5: diphosphorus pentoxide

(e) SO2: sulfur dioxide

(f) SO3: sulfur trioxide

7. Write the correct formula for the following covalent molecules.

(a) Chlorine: Cl2

(b) Nitrogen dioxide: NO2

(c) Carbon tetrachloride: CCl4

(d) Sulfur trioxide: SO3

(e) Oxygen dichloride: OCl2

(f) dinitrogen pentaoxide: N2O5

8. Combine the following ions to give the correct formula:

Cl – O2– N3– OH – SO4 2 –

Na+ NaCl Na2O Na3N NaOH Na2SO4
Mg2+ MgCl2 MgO Mg3N2 Mg(OH)2 MgSO4
 BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

Fe3+ FeCl3 Fe2O3 FeN Fe(OH)3 Fe2(SO4)3

9. For each of the following compounds name the type of bonding – ionic, metallic or covalent –
involved.

(a) NaCl: ionic

(b) Pb: metallic

(c) PbCl2: ionic

(d) HNO3: covalent

(e) SO2: covalent

(f) NH4NO3: ionic

10. Write the correct formula for each of the following ionic compounds.

BaCl2 ZnO
Barium chloride Zinc oxide

AlCl3 ZnSO4
Aluminium chloride Zinc sulfate

Al(NO3)3 Ba(CH3COO)2
Aluminium nitrate Barium ethanoate

Cs2S Ca(OH)2
Caesium sulfide Calcium hydroxide

CuSO3 Cu(OH)2
Copper (II) sulfite Copper (II) hydroxide

Zn3(PO4)2 NH4Cl
Zinc phosphate Ammonium chloride

CoF2 NH4HSO4
Cobalt fluoride Ammonium
hydrogensulfate
PbO Cr2O3
Lead (II) oxide Chromium (III) oxide

11. Name the following ionic compounds.

(a) NaBr: Sodium bromide

(b) Fe(NO3)2: Iron(II) nitrate

(c) FeSO4: Iron(II) sulfate

(d) (NH4)2SO4: ammonium sulfate

(e) BaO: barium oxide

 BONDING – MAKING ATOMS STICK TOGETHER

(f) CuCO3: copper(II) carbonate

(g) KHCO3: Potassium bicarbonate

(h) Cu(OH)2: copper(II) hydroxide

(i) FeCO3: Iron(II) carbonate

(j) Ba3(PO4)2: barium phosphate

12. There are many different oxides of nitrogen. Give the correct name for each of the following.

(a) NO: nitrogen monoxide

(b) NO2: nitrogen dioxide

(c) N2O: dinitrogen monoxide

(d) N2O3: dinitrogen trioxide

(e) N2O4: dinitrogen tetroxide

(f) N2O5: dinitrogen pentoxide