Ionic bonding

Ionic bonds are a type of chemical bond based on electrostatic forces between two oppositely-charged ions. In ionic bond formation, a

metal donates an electron, due to a low electronegativity to form a positive ion or cation. Often ionic bonds form between metals and

non-metals. The non-metal atom has an electron configuration just short of a noble gas structure. They have high electronegativity,

and so readily gain electrons to form negative ions or anions. The two or more ions are then attracted to each other by electrostatic

forces. Such bonds are stronger than hydrogen bonds, but similar in strength to covalent bonds.

Ionic bonding occurs only if the overall energy change for the reaction is favourable when the bonded atoms have a lower energy than

the free ones. The larger the resulting energy change the stronger the bond.

Pure ionic bonding is not known to exist. All ionic bonds have a degree of covalent bonding or metallic bonding. The larger the

difference in electronegativity between two atoms the more ionic the bond. Ionic compounds conduct electricity when molten or in

solution. They generally have a high melting point and tend to be soluble in water.

Ionic Bonding
Evidence for existence of ions

 Physical properties of ionic compounds

 Electron density maps

 Movement of ions, e.g. in electrolysis of copper chromate(VI)

(Needs expanding)

When atoms gain or lose electrons, they become charged ions. It is the attraction between oppositely charged ions which form an ionic

bond. Atoms gain or lose electrons in order to try and gain a full outer shell, which is more stable.

(Dot-Cross diagram for ionic bonding)

Ionic compounds usually exist in giant ionic lattices held together by strong electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

The energy holding this lattice together is called the lattice energy, and can be calculated from the energies of each of the steps

needed to form the lattice from the elements:

 Enthalpy of formation of compound

 -Atomisation

 -Ionisation and electron affinity

The lattice energy calculated from this method differs to experimental values, suggesting the ionic model is not completely accurate.

This is because the positively charged cations attract the electrons of the anion, so ionic bonds are polarised and are partly covalent.

The polarising power of cations is affected by its charge density, and the polarisability of the anion depends on its size.

An ionic radius is the radius of an ion. Down a group, as more and more shells are being filled, ionic radii get larger. Positively charged

ions, which lose electrons, generally have smaller ionic radii than negatively charged ions, which gain electrons.
Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonding is a description form of chemical bonding that is characterized by the sharing of one or more

electrons between two atoms. In general bonds are defined by a mutual attraction that holds the resultant

molecule together. Often bonding occurs in such a way that the the outer electron shells of the participating

atoms becomes filled. Such bonds are always stronger than the intermolecular hydrogen bond and similar in

strength to or stronger than the ionic bond.

In contrast to the ionic and metallic bond, the covalent bond is directional, i.e. the bond angles have a great

impact on the strength of the interaction. This impact arises because covalent bonds are formed by the overlap

of atomic orbitals, with greater overlap producing a greater strength of interaction. Atomic orbitals all have highly

directional character, resulting in a highly directionally-dependent interactions in bonding.

Covalent bonding most frequently occurs between atoms with similar electronegativities. For this reason, non-

metals tend to engage in covalent bonding more readily since metals have access to metallic bonding.

Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonds are formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. The attraction of the positively charged nucleus and the shared

electrons means covalent bonds are very strong; giant atomic structures have high melting points as the covalent bonds are hard to

break. (Need electron density map for simple molecules)

(Dot-Cross diagram for covalent bonding, multiple covalent bonds, and dative covalent bonds)

Dative bonding

A dative covalent bond (also known as coordinate covalent bond) is a special type of covalent bond in which the
shared electrons "come from" one of the atoms only. Once the bond has been formed, its strength is no different

from that of a covalent bond. The process of forming a dative bond is called coordination. The electron donor

acquires a positive formal charge, while the electron acceptor acquires a negative formal charge.

A compound that contains a lone pair of electrons is capable of forming a dative bond. Dative bonds can be

found in many different substances, such as in simple molecules like carbon monoxide or the ammonium

ion . Dative bonds are also formed by electron deficient compounds, such as beryllium chloride

. The Beryllium atom in this compound tends to bind two additional chlorine atoms, in which every

beryllium atom is bonded to four chlorine atoms, two with normal covalent bonding, and the other two with

dative bonds.

Dative bonding can also be found in coordination complexes involving metal ions, especially if they are transition

metal ions. In such complexes, substances in a solution donate their free pairs of electrons to the metal ion,

which accepts the electrons. Dative bonds form and the resulting compound is called a coordination complex,

while the electron donors are called ligands. A common ligand is water , which will form coordination

complexes with metal ions, like , which will form in aqueous solution.
A dative bond is sometimes represented by an arrow pointing from the donor of the electron pair to the acceptor

of the electron pair.

Metallic bonding

Metallic bonding is the bonding within metals. It involves the delocalised sharing of free electrons among a lattice

of metal atoms. Thus, metallic bonds may be compared to molten salts.

Metal atoms typically contain a high number of electrons in their valence shell compared to their period or

energy level. These become delocalised and form a sea of electrons surrounding a giant lattice of positive ions.

The surrounding electrons and the positive ions in the metal have a strong attractive force between them. This

means that more energy is required to negate these forces. Therefore metals often have high melting or boiling

points. The principle is similar to that of ionic bonds.

Metallic bonding is non-polar, because there is no difference in the electronegativity among the atoms

participating in the bonding interaction, and the electrons involved in that interaction are delocalised across the

crystalline structure of the metal.

The metallic bond accounts for many physical characteristics of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility,

conduction of heat and electricity, and lustre. Due to the fact that the electrons move independently of the

positive ions in a sea of negative charge, the metal gains some electrical conductivity. It allows the energy to

pass quickly through the electrons generating a current.

Metallic bonding is the electrostatic attraction between the metal atoms or ions and the delocalised electrons.

This is why atoms or layers are allowed to slide past each other, resulting in the characteristic properties of

malleability and ductility.

Metallic Bonding

Metals exist in a giant lattice of metal ions in a sea of delocalised electrons. Metallic bonding is the strong

attraction of the ions and the sea of electrons. The sea of electrons mean metals are conductors. (Melting point

of metals)

Pi(π) and sigma (σ) bonds

Sigma bonds (σ bonds) are a type of covalent chemical bond. Sigma bonds are the strongest type of covalent bonds. Electrons in

sigma bonds are sometimes referred to as sigma electrons. The symbol σ is the Greek letter for s.

Pi bonds (π bonds) are also chemical bonds of the covalent type. The Greek letter π in their name refers to p orbitals, since the orbital

symmetry of the pi bond is the same as that of the p orbital when seen down the bond axis. P orbitals usually engage in this sort of

bonding. However, d orbitals can engage in pi bonding also. Pi bonds are usually weaker than sigma bond. Although the pi bond by
itself is weaker than a sigma bond, pi bonds are most often found in multiple bonds together with sigma bonds and the combination is

stronger than either bond by itself.