MECHANICS OF MATERIALS

WEEK-1

Midterm: %50
Final: %50
Mukavemetin mekanik bilimindeki yeri

ELEKTRİK FİZİK OPTİK

MEKANİK

RİJİT CİSİMLERİN MEKANİĞİ ŞEKİL DEĞİŞTİREBİLEN

(ŞEKİL DEĞİŞİMİ YOK) CİSİMLERİN MEKANİĞİ

KATI CİSİMLERİN AKIŞKANLAR

MEKANİĞİ MEKANİĞİ
DİNAMİK
STATİK

 MUKAVEMET
KINEMATICS KINEMATICS
 The purpose of mechanics of material

 To determine the optimum design parameters of a structure under given loading

conditions. Then your structure works safely at working conditions.

As an engineer, you should;

 understand how a body deform under aplied loads.
 determine the correct dimensions of your structure in order to have long term and safe
service life.
 Engineering Structures
Gears, shafts, and bearings are the main part of machines
 Engineering Structures
Pressure vessels
Engineering Structures

Wind Turbines Cranes

 Design Limitations

1-Safety: You need to make sure that the strength of the structure is much less
than the applied load.
2-Cost: As an engineer, you should avoid using excessive material in your
structure due sto cost issue.
3-Manufacturability: Your perfect design is not actually perfect if your
structure can not be manufactured by manufacturing methods.
 Loading Types

Based on application direction Based on application time

1-Axial loading 2-Dynamic loading
1-Static loading
2-Torsional loading  Impact loading
3-Bending loading  Repeated loading
Loading Types based on application direction

1.AXIAL LOADING
Loading Types based on application direction

2.TORSIONAL LOADING
Loading Types based on application direction

3.BENDING LOADING
 Loading Types based on application time
STATIC LOADING
 Force has constant size, position, and direction.
 Live loads are also considered as static loads becuase their magnitude slowly increase in
time
 Loading Types based on application time
DYNAMIC LOADING
 The size, position, and direction of the force may change over time.

Impact loading Repeated loading

 Loading Types based on application time
DYNAMIC LOADING
 The size, position, and direction of the force
may change over time.
Assumptions:
The materials are assumed to be:
 Elastic
 Isotropic
 Continuous
The loading type is assumed to be:
 Static
•UNIT I CONCEPT OF STRESS
 STRESS
 Whether a structure will fail or not depends not only upon the magnitude of the force but
also upon the cross sectional area.

 Loads in a structure are distributed over the cross sectional area of the structure and
create stress in that section.

𝑭 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐹 𝜎 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 =
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠=𝜎= 𝑅
𝐴
𝑫𝑬𝑺𝑰𝑮𝑵 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑺𝑰𝑫𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵
 Determination of stresses in structures is not enough. As an engineer, you shall design of structures and machines that
safely and economically perform a specified function.

𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 =𝜎 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠

𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝜎 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 =𝜎 𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠

if a factor of safety is chosen too small if a factor of safety is chosen unnecessarly large

the possibility of failure is large uneconomical or nonfunctional design

𝑫𝑬𝑺𝑰𝑮𝑵 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑺𝑰𝑫𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵
The considerations when choosing the factor of safety
Variations that may occur in the properties of the member
 Residual stresses introduced through heating.
 Deformations during, manufacture, storage, construction, and transportation.
Fatigue loading
 The ultimate stress decreases as the number of load applications is increased.
Type of failure
 Brittle materials fail suddenly.
 Ductile materials, such as structural steel, normally undergo a substantial deformation called yielding before failing.
 Therefore, larger factor of safety should be used in britte materials than that of ductile materials.

Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance or because of unpreventable natural causes
 A larger factor of safety is necessary in locations where conditions such as corrosion and decay are difficult to control or
even to discover.
Uncertainty due to methods of analysis
 All design methods are based on certain simplifying assumptions which result in calculated stresses being
approximations of actual stresses.
STRESS UNITS
𝑀𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
2
𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 ( 𝑃𝑎)=𝑁 /𝑚
3 3 2
𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 ( 𝑘𝑃𝑎 )=10 𝑃𝑎=10 𝑁 / 𝑚
6 6 2
𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 ( 𝑀𝑃𝑎 )=10 𝑃𝑎=10 𝑁 / 𝑚
2 −6 2 6 2
𝑁 /𝑚𝑚 =𝑁 / 10 𝑚 =10 𝑁 / 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠h 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
2
𝑝𝑠𝑖=𝑙𝑏 / 𝑖𝑛
k
 STRESS TYPES
1. NORMAL STRESS (EKSENEL GERİLME)
2. SHEARING STRESS (KAYMA GERİLMESİ
3. BEARING STRESS (YATAKLAMA GERİLMESİ)

NORMAL STRESS
 Stress perpendicular to the plane of the section is called normal stress.

Plane of the section

 This formula implies that the load is
𝐹 distributed over the entire cross section
𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒=
𝐴 area. Therefore, this stress is equal to the
average value of the stress
NORMAL STRESS
 The concentrated loads actually create the maximum stress at the application point and
varies across the cross section.

 The stress is equal to average stress after some distance

from the application point. In practice, we will assume
that the distribution of normal stress in an axially loaded
members is uniform.
SHEARING STRESS
 The forces in the plane of section create shearing stress.
 Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins, and rivets.

Bolt subject to single shear

𝐹
𝜏 𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
𝐴
SHEARING STRESS
Bolt subject to double shear

𝐹
𝜏 𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2𝐴
BEARING STRESS
 Bolts, pins, and rivets create stresses in the members they connect, along the bearing
surface, or surface of contact.

𝐹
𝜎 𝑏=
𝑡𝑑
E1 Find the stresses in each member and connections
E1
E1
Solution

Equlibrium equations
E1
Equlibrium in AB rod

Resultant force in BC rod Resultant force in AB rod

√
𝐹 𝐵𝐶= (𝐶¿¿𝑥)2+(𝐶¿¿ 𝑦)2= √ 302 +402=50𝑘𝑁¿ ¿
√
𝐹 𝐴𝐵= ( 𝐴¿¿ 𝑥) +( 𝐴¿¿ 𝑦) =√ 40 +0 =40𝑘𝑁 ¿¿
2 2 2 2

Tension
Compression
E1 Determinataion of Normal Stresses in members

Normal Stress in AB rod

50 mm 3
40 kN 40 kN 40 𝑥 10 𝑁
𝜎 𝐴𝐵= =26.7 𝑀𝑃𝑎(Compressive)
( 30 𝑚𝑚 ) (50 𝑚𝑚)

30 mm

Normal Stress in BC rod

50
kN

50 𝑥 103 𝑁
m 𝜎 𝐵𝐶 = 2
=159 𝑀𝑃𝑎(Tensile)
m 𝜋 (10 𝑚𝑚)
20
50
kN
E1 Determination of normal stresses in connections

30 mm AB END

50 mm
d

20 mm BC END
40 mm

d
E1 Determination of shearing stresses in connections

Pin C Pin A
E1 Determination of shearing stresses in connections

Pin B
𝑘𝑁
2 5
=
𝑃 𝐽

𝑘𝑁
5
=2
𝑃𝐺

0 𝑘𝑁
= 5
𝐹 𝐵𝐶
E1 Determination of bearing stresses in connections

At Pin A At Pin B
AB rod t=30 mm AB rod

50 mm
d

3
20 𝑥 10 𝑁
𝜎 𝑏= =40 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(20 𝑚𝑚)(25 𝑚𝑚)
E1 Determination of bearing stresses in connections

At Pin B At Pin C
20 mm
BC rod BC rod

40 mm
d

3
50 𝑥 10 𝑁
𝜎 𝑏= =100 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(20 𝑚𝑚)(25 𝑚𝑚)

3
50 𝑥 10 𝑁
𝜎 𝑏= =100 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(20 𝑚𝑚)(25 𝑚𝑚)
E2-sample problem 1.1
In the hanger shown, the upper portion of link ABC is 3/8 in. thick and the lower portions are each 1/4
in. thick. Epoxy resin is used to bond the upper and lower portions together at B. The pin at A is of 3/8 -
in. diameter while a 1/4-in.-diameter pin is used at C. Determine (a) the shearing stress in pin A, (b)
the shearing stress in pin C, (c) the largest normal stress in link ABC, (d) the average shearing
stress on the bonded surfaces at B, (e) the bearing stress in the link at C.

Solution
Determination of forces
E2-sample problem 1.1 Determination of shear stresses

Shear stress in pin A

Shear stress in pin C

 E2-sample problem 1.1 Determination of Normal Strsesses in link ABC

Normal Stress in AB member Normal Stress in BC members

750 𝑙𝑏 (750 / 2)𝑙𝑏

𝜎 𝐴𝐵= =1600 𝑝𝑠𝑖 𝜎 𝐵𝐶 = =1200 𝑝𝑠𝑖
(0.375 𝑖𝑛)(1.25 𝑖𝑛) (0.25 𝑖𝑛)(1.25 𝑖𝑛)

Normal Stress in joint A Normal Stress in joint C

(750 /2) 𝑙𝑏
750 𝑙𝑏 𝜎 𝐵𝐶 , 𝐶 = =1500 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝜎 𝐴𝐵 , 𝐴= =2286 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (0.25 𝑖𝑛)( 1.25 𝑖𝑛− 0.25)
( 0.375 𝑖𝑛)(1.25 𝑖𝑛 − 0.375𝑖𝑛)

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝑨𝑩𝑪 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌 𝒐𝒄𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒏 𝒋𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑨.
E2-sample problem 1.1

Shearing Stress on the bonded surfaces

 E2-sample problem 1.1 Determination of Bearing Stresses in the connections

Bearing Stress at A Bearing Stress at C

𝐹
𝜎 𝑏, 𝐴=
𝑡𝑑

(750/ 2) 𝑙𝑏
𝜎 𝑏, 𝐶= =6000 𝑝𝑠𝑖
750 𝑙𝑏 (0.25 𝑖𝑛)( 0.25 𝑖𝑛)
𝜎 𝑏 , 𝐴= =5333 𝑝𝑠𝑖
( 0.375 𝑖𝑛)(0.375 𝑖𝑛)
𝑬 𝟖 − 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝟏 .𝟑

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 𝑷

𝑬 𝟖 − 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝟏 .𝟑
𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒐𝒅 𝑨𝑩

𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒄 𝑪

𝑬 𝟖 − 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝟏 .𝟑
𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒂𝒕 𝑪
𝐹 (76.3 𝑘𝑁 )/ 2
𝜎 𝑏= =300 ( 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ) =
𝑡𝑑 (𝑡 )(22 𝑚𝑚)

𝑡 =5.78 𝑚𝑚 ≈ 6 𝑚𝑚
𝑬 𝟗 − 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝟏 .𝟒
𝑬 𝟗 − 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝟏 .𝟒

𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑪 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑩 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑫

𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍 𝒓𝒐𝒅
𝜎 𝑈 60 𝐵 𝐵
𝜎 𝑎𝑙 ,𝑟𝑜𝑑 = = =20 𝑘𝑠𝑖 𝜎 𝑎𝑙 ,𝑟𝑜𝑑 = 20 𝑘𝑠𝑖= =
𝑅 3
𝐴 𝑟𝑜𝑑
(1/ 4 ) 𝜋 (
7
2
𝑘𝑠𝑖)
𝐵=3.01 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
16
𝐶 =1.750 ( 3.01 )=5.27 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑬 𝟗 − 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎 𝟏 .𝟒

𝑩𝒐𝒍𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝑩 𝜏 𝑈 40
𝜏 𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = =13.33 𝑘𝑠𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑅 3
𝐵=2.94 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝐵 /2 𝐵/ 2
𝜏 𝑎𝑙𝑙 = = =13.33 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐴𝐵 1 3
2
( ) 𝜋 ( 𝑖𝑛)
4 8 𝐶 =1.750 ( 2.94 )=5.15 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

𝑩𝒐𝒍𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝑫
𝐵=𝐷=2.94 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

𝐶 =2.33 ( 𝐷 ) =2.33 ( 2.94 )=6.86 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

𝑩𝒐𝒍𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝑪
𝜏 𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝐶
=
𝐶/2
=13.33 𝑘𝑠𝑖 𝐵=5.23 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝐴𝐶 1 1
2
( ) 𝜋 ( 𝑖𝑛)
4 2
E3-sample problem 1.2

Solution
Diameter of the bolt

𝑃 /2
𝑃
𝑃 /2
E3-sample problem 1.2
Determination of the dimension b
𝐶h𝑒𝑐𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡h𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
3
120 𝑥 10 𝑁
𝜎= =175 𝑀𝑃𝑎 3
( 𝑏− 28)(20 𝑚𝑚) 120 𝑥 10 𝑁
𝜎 𝑏= =214 𝑀𝑃𝑎< 350 𝑀𝑃𝑎
(20 𝑚𝑚)(28 𝑚𝑚)
𝑏=62.3 𝑚𝑚

Determination of the dimension h

3
120 𝑥 10 𝑁
𝜎= =175 𝑀𝑃𝑎
( h)(20 𝑚𝑚)

h=34.3 𝑚𝑚
E4 Solution

Determination of maximum load in piston

Determination of maximum force

𝜎 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 =320 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑝𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛

𝐹 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =?
E5
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡h𝑒 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑 2
𝜎 𝐴𝐵 , 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 =175 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎 𝐵𝐶 , 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 =150 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
E6
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡h𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝐸𝐹 , 𝐸𝐵 ,𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷𝐶
2
𝐴=900 𝑚𝑚

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝑭

∑ 𝑀 𝐴=0
4 3
( −20 𝑘𝑁 )( 4 𝑚 ) − ( 10 𝑘𝑁 )( 8 𝑚 ) + 𝐹 ( 2 𝑚 ) + 𝐹 𝐸𝐹 ( 2 √ 3 )= 0
5 𝐸𝐹 5

3
𝐹 𝐸𝐹 =43.5 𝑘𝑁 43.5 𝑥 10 𝑁
𝜎 𝐸𝐹 = 2
=48.3 𝑀𝑃𝑎
900 𝑚𝑚
E6 𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝑫𝑪 − 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝑰

∑ 𝑀 𝐴=0
( −20 𝑘𝑁 )( 4 𝑚 ) −(𝐹¿¿ 𝐷𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛60) ( 6 𝑚 ) −( 𝐹¿¿ 𝐷𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60) ( 2 √ 3 ) =0 ¿¿
𝐹 𝐷𝐶 =11.55 𝑘𝑁 11.55 𝑥 10 𝑁
3
𝜎 𝐷𝐶 = 2
=12.8 𝑀𝑃𝑎
900 𝑚𝑚

𝐹 𝐷𝐶

𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝑫𝑪 − 𝑴𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 𝑰𝑰

𝐹 𝐵𝐶
 This method can be used if only the forces at the point satisfy
the equlibrium condition.

𝐹 𝐷𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛60=10 𝑘𝑁
𝐹 𝐷𝐶
𝐹 𝐷𝐶 =11.55 𝑘𝑁
60
0
𝑪 𝐹 𝐵𝐶
𝐹 𝐷𝐶 𝑐𝑜𝑠 60=𝐹 𝐵 𝐶
𝐹 𝐵 𝐶 =5.78 𝑘𝑁
10 𝑘𝑁
E6

𝑵𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝑩

𝐹 𝐸𝐷
∑ 𝑀 𝐵=0
( −10 𝑘𝑁 )( 4 𝑚 ) +(𝐹 ¿¿ 𝐸𝐷) ( 2 √3 )=0 ¿
𝐹 𝐸𝐵
𝐹 𝐷𝐶 =11.55 𝑘𝑁

𝐹 𝐴𝐵
∑ 𝑀𝐶 =0
( 20 𝑘𝑁 ) ( 4 𝑚 ) + ( 11.55 𝑘𝑁 ) ( 2 √ 3 𝑚 ) −( 𝐹 ¿¿ 𝐸 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛60)(4 𝑚)=0 ¿

𝐹 𝐸𝐵 =33.64 𝑘𝑁
3
34.64 𝑥 10 𝑁
𝜎 𝐸𝐵 = 2
=38.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎
900 𝑚𝑚
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑰𝑵 𝑨𝑵 𝑶𝑩𝑳𝑰𝑸𝑼𝑬 𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑵𝑬

𝑹𝑬𝑽𝑰𝑬𝑾

 Axial stressses perpendicular to the plane cause normal

stresses.

𝑹𝑬𝑽𝑰𝑬𝑾

 Transverse stressses parallel to the plane cause shearing

stresses.
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑰𝑵 𝑨𝑵 𝑶𝑩𝑳𝑰𝑸𝑼𝑬 𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑵𝑬

 Knowing the stresses in the oblique plane might be crucial for the applications where two components are welded or
bonded by their angled planes.
 Axial forces cause both normal and shearing stresses on planes which are not perpendicular to the axis of the member.
 Transverse forces exerted on a bolt or a pin cause both normal and shearing stresses on planes which are not parallel to
the axis of the bolt or pin.
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑰𝑵 𝑨𝑵 𝑶𝑩𝑳𝑰𝑸𝑼𝑬 𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑵𝑬
0
𝐴 𝑡 𝜃 =0 0 𝐴 𝑡 𝜃 =90 𝐴 𝑡 𝜃 =450

𝜎 =0

𝜏= 0 𝜏= 0
 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑰𝑵 𝑨𝑵 𝑶𝑩𝑳𝑰𝑸𝑼𝑬 𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑵𝑬

𝐴 𝑡 𝜃 =450 𝐴 𝑡 𝜃=− 450

𝐴 𝑡 𝜃 =0 0
 𝑨
𝑬𝟕 𝑩 F=8000 𝑁
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡h𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡h𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 .
𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑨
𝟎
𝜽=𝟑𝟎
8000 𝑁
𝜎= ¿
( 30 𝑚𝑚)(60 𝑚𝑚)

8000 𝑁
𝜏= ¿
(30 𝑚𝑚 )(60 𝑚𝑚 )
 𝑨
𝑬𝟕 𝑩 F=8000 𝑁
𝐷𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡h𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡h𝑒 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑑𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 .
𝑮𝒍𝒖𝒆𝒅 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑩
𝟎
𝜽=−𝟔𝟎
8000 𝑁 2 0
𝜎= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ( −60 )=1.11 𝑀𝑃𝑎
( 30 𝑚𝑚)(60 𝑚𝑚)

8000 𝑁 0
𝜏= 𝑠𝑖𝑛(−60 )𝑐𝑜𝑠(− 60¿ ¿ 0)=− 1.92 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ¿
(30 𝑚𝑚)(60 𝑚𝑚)
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺𝑼𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑹 𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑳 𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑫𝑰𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵
 Most structural members and machine components are under more involved loading conditions in the three dimension.

Section cut parallel to yz plane

 x is used to indicate that the forces acting on a surface perpendicular to the x axis.
 Second letter identifes the direction of the stress.
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺𝑼𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑹 𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑳 𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑫𝑰𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵

Stresses in the xz plane Foces acting on the faces of the cube

Stresses in the yz plane

Stresses in the xy plane

 Let’s examine the equilibrium in the xy plane.

𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺𝑼𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑹 𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑳 𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑫𝑰𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵
From the equilibrium of the moment: Similarly, we can obtain following equations

 Only six stress components are required to define the condition of stress at a given point Q:
 STRESS AND STRAIN
•UNIT 2 AXIAL LOADING
𝑵𝑶𝑹𝑴𝑨𝑳 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 𝑼𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑹 𝑨𝑿𝑰𝑨𝑳 𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫𝑰𝑵𝑮

𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒉𝒕=𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏

𝛿(𝑚𝑚) 𝛿(𝑚𝑚)
𝜖= 𝜖 (% )= 𝑥 100
𝐿(𝑚𝑚) 𝐿(𝑚𝑚)
𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒔 𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒚

𝛿=𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺− 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑴
𝑇 h𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑠𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑐h𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 .
 To obtain the stress-strain diagram of a material, one usually conducts a tensile test on a specimen of the material.

𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴

𝛿
𝜖=
 Tensile tests conducted on the same material may yield different results, 𝐿
depending upon the temperature of the specimen and the speed of loading.
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺− 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑴
Necking Rupture
Low carbon steel (Ductile)

Due to excessive
dislocations

We note that rupture occurs along a cone-shaped surface that forms an angle of approximately 45o with the original surface
of the specimen. This indicates that shear is primarily responsible for the failure of ductile materials, and confirms the fact
that, under an axial load, shearing stresses are largest on surfaces forming an angle of 45 o with the load.
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺− 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑴

Aluminum alloy (Ductile)

Determination of yield strength by offset method
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺− 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑴

(Brittle material)

 For brittle materials, there is no difference between the ultimate strength and the breaking strength.
 The strain at the time of rupture is much smaller for brittle than for ductile materials.
 Normal stresses are primarily responsible for the failure of brittle materials.
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺− 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑴

Determination of yield strength by offset method

 The the higher ductility the material has, the lower the yield strength.
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺− 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑴 𝑼𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑹 𝑪𝑶𝑴𝑷𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺𝑰𝑶𝑵
Tension and compression tests of concrete Behavior of ductile material under compression
 The stress-strain curve obtained from the compression test
would be essentially the same through its initial straight-line
portion and through the beginning of the portion
corresponding to yield and strain-hardening.
 For larger values of the strain, the tension and compression
stress-strain curves diverge, and it should be noted that
necking cannot occur in compression

 For most brittle materials, one finds that the ultimate

strength in compression is much larger than the
ultimate strength in tension. This is due to the
presence of flaws, such as microscopic cracks or
cavities, which tend to weaken the material in
tension, while not appreciably affecting its
resistance to compressive failure.
𝑻𝑹𝑼𝑬 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 −𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵 𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑮𝑹𝑨𝑴
Low carbon steel (Ductile) Aluminum alloy (Ductile)

True stress-strain curve

 The cross-sectional area of the specimen decreases as P

increases
 The true stress is obtained by dividing the load to the
actual cross sectional area.
𝑻𝑹𝑼𝑬 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 −𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵

𝑻𝑹𝑼𝑬 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑻𝑹𝑼𝑬 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵

𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴

𝑬𝑵𝑮𝑰𝑵𝑬𝑬𝑹𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑬𝑵𝑮𝑰𝑵𝑬𝑬𝑹𝑰𝑵𝑮 𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵

𝑃 ∆𝐿
𝜎= 𝜖=
𝐴0 𝐿0
𝑯𝑶𝑶𝑲𝑬 ’ 𝑺 𝑳𝑨𝑾 ; 𝑴𝑶𝑫𝑼𝑳𝑼𝑺𝑶𝑭 𝑬𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪𝑰𝑻𝒀
 For the linear portion of the diagram, the stress is directly proportional to the strain.

 Steels having different

compositions have same stiffness
but different load bearing capacity.

𝜎 =𝐸 𝜖  Heat treatment also increaseas the

load bearing capacity of the steels.

𝐸=𝑀𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Stress-strain diagrams for iron and

different grades of steel
𝑬𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑺𝑼𝑺 𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑩𝑬𝑯𝑨𝑽𝑰𝑶𝑹 𝑶𝑭 𝑨 𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹𝑰𝑨𝑳

 When the load is removed after the yield

point the stress-strain curve decreaseas
along a line parallel to linear portion AB.
 In this case, permament deformation
occurs
 When the load is removed in elastic
region no plastic deformation
(permanent deformation) occurs
Permanent deformation
𝑬𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑺𝑼𝑺 𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑩𝑬𝑯𝑨𝑽𝑰𝑶𝑹 𝑶𝑭 𝑨 𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹𝑰𝑨𝑳

 If, after being loaded and unloaded, the test specimen is loaded again, the
new loading curve will closely follow the earlier unloading curve until it
almost reaches point C;
 We should note that elastic limit have increased as a result of the strain-
hardening that occurred during the earlier loading of the specimen
𝑬𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑺𝑼𝑺 𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑩𝑬𝑯𝑨𝑽𝑰𝑶𝑹 𝑶𝑭 𝑨 𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹𝑰𝑨𝑳

 If, after being loaded and unloaded, the test specimen is loaded again, the
new loading curve will closely follow the earlier unloading curve until it
almost reaches point C;
 We should note that elastic limit have increased as a result of the strain-
hardening that occurred during the earlier loading of the specimen
𝑬𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑽𝑬𝑹𝑺𝑼𝑺 𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑩𝑬𝑯𝑨𝑽𝑰𝑶𝑹 𝑶𝑭 𝑨 𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑹𝑰𝑨𝑳

Stress-strain characteristics for mild steel subjected to reverse loading.

𝑹𝑬𝑷𝑬𝑨𝑻𝑬𝑫 𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫𝑰𝑵𝑮
 It is important to note that the structural failure occurs when the structure is exposed to high cyle repeated
loading in the eleastic regime. This phenomenon is known as fatigue failure.
 In such cases, rupture will occur at a stress much lower than the static breaking strength
 A fatigue failure is of a brittle nature, even for materials that are normally ductile
 Beam supporting an industrial crane may be loaded as many as two million times in 25 years (about 300
loadings per working day),

100,000,000 times
200,000 miles
 The number of loading cycles required to cause the failure of a specimen through repeated successive loadings
and reverse loadings should be determined experimentally for any given maximum stress level.
 If a series of tests is conducted, using different maximum stress levels, the resulting data may be plotted as a σ-
N curve.

 Endurance limit =The endurance limit is the stress for which failure
does not occur, even for an indefinitely large number of loading cycles

 For nonferrous metals, such as aluminum and copper endurance does not
exhibit endurance limit. For these materials a fatigue limit is used.

 Fatigue limit =the stress corresponding to failure after a specified

number of loading cycles, such as 500 million

 Typical σ-N curves

𝑫𝑬𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑺 𝑶𝑭 𝑴𝑬𝑴𝑩𝑬𝑹𝑺 𝑼𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑹 𝑨𝑿𝑰𝑨𝑳 𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫𝑰𝑵𝑮

𝑃 𝛿
𝜎 =𝐸 𝜖 𝜎= 𝜖=
𝐴 𝐿

𝑃𝐿
( 𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ) 𝛿=
𝐴𝐸

If the rod consists of several portions of various cross sections

and of different materials, the deformation can be expressed as;

𝑃 𝑖 𝐿𝑖
𝛿=∑
𝑖 𝐴 𝑖 𝐸𝑖
𝑫𝑬𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑺 𝑶𝑭 𝑴𝑬𝑴𝑩𝑬𝑹𝑺 𝑼𝑵𝑫𝑬𝑹 𝑨𝑿𝑰𝑨𝑳 𝑳𝑶𝑨𝑫𝑰𝑵𝑮

For a member of variable cross section;

 This formula should be used not only when the cross-sectional area A is a
function of x, but also when the internal force P depends upon x
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟏

 Determine the deformation of the steel rod under the given loads.
6
𝐸=29 𝑥 10 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝑃 𝑖 𝐿𝑖
𝛿=∑
𝑖 𝐴 𝑖 𝐸𝑖
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟐

𝜎 =?
𝛿=?
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟑

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟑
𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑩

𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑫
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟑
𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑬
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔
 We normally use free-body diagrams and equilibrium equations to determine the internal forces produced in the various
portions of a member under given loading conditions.
 However, the internal forces cannot be determined by simply drawing a free-body diagram of the member and writing
the corresponding equilibrium equations from statics alone in some problems.
 The equilibrium equations must be complemented by relations involving deformations obtained by considering the
geometry of the problem.
 Because statics is not sufficient to determine either the reactions or the internal forces, problems of this type are said to
be statically indeterminate.
 𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟒

𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟒
𝑩𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔 𝑪𝑫 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑮𝑯

𝑹𝒐𝒅 𝑬𝑭

𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑫 𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝑩 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈

𝛿𝑏=𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝛿𝑟 =𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒊𝒏𝒓𝒐𝒅
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟓 T

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔

These two equations can be solved simultaneously to

determine the the deformation of the rod and the tube.
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟔 𝑭𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒃𝒐𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒛𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝝈 𝑨𝑪 =?

𝝈 𝑩𝑪 =?

𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑹𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒔

𝑷 𝟏 𝑹 𝑨 𝑷 𝑳𝟐
𝝈 𝑨𝑪 = = =
𝑨 𝑨 𝑳𝑨
𝑷𝟐 𝑹 𝑩 𝑷 𝑳𝟏
𝝈 𝑩𝑪 = =− =
𝑨 𝑨 𝑳𝑨
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟕 (𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅)
𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅
𝑹 𝑨 =?
𝑹 𝑩 =?
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟕 (𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅)
𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅
1
1 2
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟕 (𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅)
𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅 2
1 2 𝑷𝟐

𝑷𝟏

𝑹𝑩 𝑹𝑩
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟕 (𝑺𝒖𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒅)

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 𝑹 𝑨

𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒍𝒚 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒎𝒔
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟖
𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆

𝛿 𝑇 =𝛼 ( ∆ 𝑇 ) L 𝛿𝑇
𝜀𝑇 = =𝛼 ( ∆ 𝑇 )
𝐿
𝛼=𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
∆ 𝑇=𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝛿𝑠𝑡 =𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑐h𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
𝜀𝑇 =𝑡h𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑨𝒙𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒖𝒆 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒆𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
 Deformation due to temp change
𝛿 𝑇 =𝛼 ( ∆ 𝑇 ) L
 Deformation due to reaction force

𝑃𝐿
𝛿𝑃 =
𝐴𝐸

𝛿= 𝛿 𝑇 + 𝛿 𝑃 = 0
𝑃𝐿
𝛿=𝛼 ( ∆ 𝑇 ) L+ =0
𝐴𝐸

 Thermal strain is restricted by fixed 𝑃=− 𝐴𝐸 𝛼 ( ∆ 𝑇 )

supports at both ends. This creates
𝑃
reaction forces at the supports and 𝜎= =− 𝐸 𝛼 ( ∆ 𝑇 )
hence stress in the axial bar. 𝐴
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟖

0
𝑇 1=75 𝐹 𝐸=29 𝑥 106 𝑝𝑠𝑖
0
𝑇 2=− 50 𝐹 𝛼=6.5 𝑥 10 6 ¿0 𝐹
𝜎 𝐴𝐶 =?
𝜎 𝐵𝐶 = ?

Temperature change

Thermal deformation
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟖

Deformation due to reaction force

𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟖
Total deformation

Stresses
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟖
Thermal strain in AC

Strain due to the reaction force in AC

𝜖 𝐴𝐶 , 𝑅 =¿

Total strain in AC

𝜖 𝐴𝐶 =𝜖 𝐴𝐶 , 𝑅 + 𝜖𝑇
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟖
Thermal strain in BC

Strain due to the reaction force in BC

𝜖 𝐵 𝐶 ,𝑅 =¿ 𝜖 𝐵 𝐶 ,𝑅 =¿

Total strain in BC

𝜖 𝐵 𝐶 =𝜖 𝐵 𝐶 ,𝑅 +𝜖 𝑇
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟖
Deformation in AC

Deformation in BC
𝐏𝐎𝐈𝐒𝐒𝐎𝐍′ 𝑺 𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶
Transverse contraction of bar under axial Axial elongation and strain due to axial load
tensile force
𝑃𝐿 𝛿𝑥 𝑃 𝜎𝑥
𝛿𝑥 = 𝜀𝑥= = =
𝐴𝐸 𝐿 𝐴𝐸 𝐸

𝑦 Lateral strain due to contradiction under axial

𝜀𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧 ≠ 0
𝑧 𝑥
Poisson’s ratio
𝜎𝑥
𝜀𝑥=
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐸
𝜈=−
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜈𝜎 𝑥 𝛿 𝑦
𝜀 𝑦 =− =
𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑧
𝐸 𝐿𝑦
𝜈 =− =− 𝜈𝜎 𝑥 𝛿 𝑧
𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥 𝜀 𝑧 =− =
𝐸 𝐿𝑧
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟗

𝜈=?
𝐸=?
𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑳𝑰𝒁𝑬𝑫 𝑯𝑶𝑶𝑲𝑬 ’ 𝑺 𝑳𝑨𝑾
𝑇h𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜎 𝑥
𝜎𝑥 𝜀 𝜀
𝜀𝑥= 𝜈 =− 𝑦 =− 𝑧
𝐸 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑥
𝑇h𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜎 𝑦
𝜎𝑦 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑧
𝜀𝑦 = 𝜈 =− =−
𝐸 𝜀𝑦 𝜀𝑦
𝑇h𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝜎 𝑧
𝜎𝑧 𝜀𝑥 𝜀𝑦
𝜀𝑧 = 𝜈 =− =−
𝐸 𝜀𝑧 𝜀𝑧

1
𝜀 𝑥 = ( 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑦 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑧 )
𝐸
1
𝜀 𝑦 = (𝜎 𝑦 − 𝜈 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑧 )
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑧 = ( 𝜎 𝑧 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑥 − 𝜈 𝜎 𝑦 )
𝐸
𝑮𝑬𝑵𝑬𝑹𝑨𝑳𝑰𝒁𝑬𝑫 𝑯𝑶𝑶𝑲𝑬 ’ 𝑺 𝑳𝑨𝑾

1
𝜀𝑥 =
𝐸
( 𝜎 𝑥 − 𝜈 𝜎 𝑦 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑧 )

1
𝜀 𝑦 = (𝜎 𝑦 − 𝜈 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑧 )
𝐸
1
𝜀𝑧 = ( 𝜎 𝑧 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑥 − 𝜈 𝜎 𝑦 )
𝐸
𝑺𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑹𝑰𝑵𝑮𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵
General state of stress

𝜏 𝑥𝑦 =𝜏 𝑦𝑥

𝛾 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜏 𝑥𝑦
𝑆h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠=𝐺=
𝛾 𝑥𝑦
𝐺 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦
 The modulus of rigidity G of any given material is less than one-
half, but more than one-third of the modulus of elasticity E of that
material
𝑺𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑹𝑰𝑵𝑮𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵

𝜏 𝑦𝑧 𝜏 𝑧𝑥
𝐺= 𝐺=
𝛾 𝑦𝑧 𝛾 𝑥𝑧

𝜏 𝑧𝑥 =𝜏 𝑥𝑧
𝜏 𝑦𝑧 =𝜏 𝑧𝑦
𝑺𝑯𝑬𝑨𝑹𝑰𝑵𝑮𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑰𝑵
For the general stress condition
General state of stress
1
𝜀 𝑥 = ( 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑦 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑧 )
𝐸
𝐸
1 𝐺=
𝜀 𝑦 = (𝜎 𝑦 − 𝜈 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑧 ) 2(1+𝜈)
𝐸
1
𝜀 𝑧 = ( 𝜎 𝑧 −𝜈 𝜎 𝑥 − 𝜈 𝜎 𝑦 )
𝐸
𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝜏 𝑦𝑧 𝜏 𝑧𝑥
𝛾 𝑥𝑦 = 𝛾 𝑦𝑧 = 𝛾 𝑧𝑥 =
𝐺 𝐺 𝐺
𝑬𝒙𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝟐 .𝟏𝟏

𝒂¿ 𝑺𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 b
𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝜏 𝑥𝑦
𝛾 𝑥𝑦 = =0.02=
𝐺 3
90 𝑥 10 𝑝𝑠𝑖

𝜏 𝑥𝑦 =1800 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑃
𝜏 𝑥𝑦 =1800 𝑝𝑠𝑖=
( 8 𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑥 (2.5 𝑖𝑛)
3
𝑃 = 36 𝑥 10 𝑙𝑏=36 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑪𝑬𝑵𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑺
Flat bars with holes

𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓

𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾=
𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒

Flat bars with

fillets

 When a structural member contains a discontinuity, such as a hole or a sudden change in cross section, high localized
stresses can also occur near the discontinuity.
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑪𝑬𝑵𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑺
Flat bars with holes

𝑃 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒= 𝐾=
𝑡𝑑 𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒

 The stress strain relationship is assumed

to be linear.
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑪𝑬𝑵𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑺

 The stress strain relationship is assumed

to be linear.

𝑃 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒= 𝐾=
𝑡𝑑 𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑬𝑿𝑨𝑴𝑷𝑳𝑬 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟐

𝑡 =10 𝑚𝑚 𝑑=40 𝑚𝑚
𝑃 𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐷=60 𝑚𝑚 𝑟 =8 𝑚𝑚 𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒= 𝐾=
𝑡𝑑 𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝜎 𝑎𝑙𝑙=𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =165 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 165 𝑀𝑃𝑎 𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒=90.7 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝐾= =1.82=
𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒

𝑃
𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒=90.7 𝑀𝑃𝑎=
(10 𝑚𝑚)( 40 𝑚𝑚)
𝑃=36.3 𝑘𝑁
𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑫𝑬𝑭𝑶𝑹𝑴𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑺 𝑬𝑿𝑨𝑴𝑷𝑳𝑬 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟑
Stress-strain diagram for an idealized
elastoplastic material

Strain at 7 mm elongation Strain at yielding point

Strain after unloading

Permanent deformation
𝑬𝑿𝑨𝑴𝑷𝑳𝑬 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟒

Internal force for rod corresponding to yielding

Deflection for rod corresponding to yielding

𝑬𝑿𝑨𝑴𝑷𝑳𝑬 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟒

Internal force for tube corresponding to yielding

Deflection for tube corresponding to yielding

𝑬𝑿𝑨𝑴𝑷𝑳𝑬 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟒
Force deflection curve for rod Force deflection curve for tube

Force deflection curve for rod and tube

𝑬𝑿𝑨𝑴𝑷𝑳𝑬 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟓

Force deflection curve for rod The rod load

The tube load

𝑬𝑿𝑨𝑴𝑷𝑳𝑬 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟓
The stress at tube The deflection at tube

Force deflection curve for tube Slope of the linear portion

Recovered deflection

Force deflection curve for rod Permanent deflection

60
𝑺𝑻𝑹𝑬𝑺𝑺 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑪𝑬𝑵𝑻𝑹𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵𝑺 𝑨𝑻 𝑷𝑳𝑨𝑺𝑻𝑰𝑪 𝑹𝑬𝑮𝑰𝑶𝑵

𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐾=
𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒
In the elastic region
Assuming that the material
is elastoplastic

At the yielding point

Above yielding point

Above yielding point

Rupture occurs
𝑬𝑿𝑨𝑴𝑷𝑳𝑬 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟔

Maximum force Deflection of AD

𝑬𝑿𝑨𝑴𝑷𝑳𝑬 𝟐 . 𝟏𝟔
Deflection of CE

Final deflection of B

 Since we have 10 mm of deflection plastic deformation occurs in

rod AD.
 However, the rod EC is in the elastic region and its deflection
remains equal to 6 mm because the force can not increase due to the
elastoplastic behavior of rod AD.
•UNIT 3 TORSION
TORSION
 Many engineering structures such as transmission shafts and cardan shafts are exposed
to torsional loading.

Transmission shafts Cardan shafts

TORSION

Shafts subject to torsional loading.

 TORSION
Deformations in a circular shaft

 When a circular shaft is subjected to torsion, every cross section remains plane and
undistorted.

 Undistorted.  Distorted.
TORSION
Deformations in a circular shaft

𝛾= 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜙=𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑡

 The shearing strain in a circular shaft varies linearly with the distance from the axis of the
shaft.
 The shearing strain is maximum on the surface of the shaft.
 TORSION
TORSIONAL STRESSES IN THE ELASTIC RANGE

Hooke’s law for shearing stress and strain

𝐺= 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠

 Shearing stress in the shaft varies linearly with the distance

from the axis of the shaft

 For a hollow circular shaft

 TORSION
TORSIONAL STRESSES IN THE ELASTIC RANGE
 Shearing stress at any
distance from the axis
of the shaft

𝑃𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 , 𝐽

EXAMPLE 3.1

a) Largest permissible torque

𝑐=𝑐2 =30 𝑚𝑚=0.03 𝑚
𝑐 1=20 𝑚𝑚=0.02𝑚
𝑐 2=30 𝑚𝑚=0.03 𝑚

𝑇 =4.08 𝑘𝑁 .𝑚
EXAMPLE 3.1

𝑐 1=20 𝑚𝑚=0.02𝑚

𝑐 2=30 𝑚𝑚=0.03 𝑚

b) Minimum shearing stress

 TORSION
SHAFT WITH VARIABLE CROSS SECTION

𝑇 =𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒

EXAMPLE 3.1
EXAMPLE 3.2
Shaft AB

¿ 𝑇 𝐶𝐷 =6 𝑘𝑁 . 𝑚

Shaft BC
EXAMPLE 3.2
a) Shaft BC-Maximum shearing stress
𝑇𝑐 90
𝑐 1= 𝑚𝑚=45 𝑚𝑚=0.045 𝑚
𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2
𝐽
120
𝑐=𝑐2 = 𝑚𝑚=60 𝑚𝑚=0.06 𝑚
2

a) Shaft BC Minimum shearing stress

EXAMPLE 3.2
b) Shaft AB and CD
 TORSION
STRESSES AT DIFFERENT ORIENTATIONS IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS

 Since the faces of element a are respectively parallel and

perpendicular to the axis of the shaft, the only stresses on the
element will be the shearing stresses
 The faces of element b, which form arbitrary angles with the
axis of the shaft, will be subjected to a combination of normal
and shearing stresses.

The stresses at 450

𝐴0
𝐴𝜃 = = 𝐴0 √ 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠 45
𝐹
𝜎= =¿
𝐴𝜃
 TORSION
The stresses at 450  Ductile materials generally fail in Shear. Therefore, when
subjected to torsion, a specimen made of a ductile material
breaks along a plane perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.

 Element a is
subjected to pure  On the other hand, brittle materials are weaker in tension than
shearing stresses. in shear. Thus, when subjected to torsion, a specimen made of
 Element c is a brittle material tends to break along surfaces that are
subjected to only perpendicular to the direction in which tension is maximum.
normal stresses.
 TORSION
ANGLE OF TWIST
′
𝐻𝑜𝑜𝑘 𝑒 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤

𝐺 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 ,𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 .

𝛾= 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
EXAMPLE 3.3
EXAMPLE 3.3

𝑐𝜙
𝛾=
𝐿
𝑐=0.02𝑚

𝜏
𝛾= =¿
𝐺

𝛾 𝐿 ( 909 𝑥 10 ) 𝑥 1.5
−6
𝜙= = =0.068 𝑟𝑎𝑑=3.910
𝑐 0.02
 TORSION
Shafts that rotates at both ends.
EXAMPLE 3.4

𝑇 𝐸𝐵 =𝐹 𝑟 𝐵 =𝑇
𝑇 𝐴𝐷=𝐹 𝑟 𝐴 =2 𝐹 𝑟 𝐵=2𝑇
 TORSION
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SHAFTS EXAMPLE 3.5
EXAMPLE 3.6
Shaft AB

Shaft BC Polar moment of inertia

EXAMPLE 3.6
Angle of twist
EXAMPLE 3.7
EXAMPLE 3.7
𝐹 𝑟 𝐵 =𝐹 ( 0.875 )=𝑇 0 =𝑇 𝐴𝐵
𝑇 𝐶𝐷 =2.8 𝑇 0
𝐹 𝑟 𝐶 =𝐹 ( 2.45 )=𝑇 𝐶𝐷

𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝑨𝑩 4
𝜋 (0.375 𝑖𝑛)
𝑇 𝐴𝐵 𝑟 𝐴𝐵 𝑇 𝐴𝐵=𝑇 0 𝑟 𝐴𝐵=0.375𝑖𝑛 𝐽 𝐴𝐵=
𝜏 𝐴𝐵 = 2
𝐽 𝐴𝐵

𝑇 𝐴𝐵 𝑟 𝐴𝐵 𝑇 0 ( 0.375 𝑖𝑛)
𝜏=
𝐽 𝐴𝐵
= 8000 𝑝𝑠𝑖=
𝜋 4
𝑇 0=663 𝑙𝑏 .𝑖𝑛
(0.375 𝑖𝑛)
2

𝑺𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝑪𝑫 𝐽 𝐶𝐷 =
4
𝜋 (0. 5 𝑖𝑛)
𝑇 𝐶𝐷 𝑟 𝐶𝐷 𝑇 𝐶𝐷 =2.8 𝑇 0 𝑟 𝐶𝐷 =0.5 𝑖𝑛 2
𝜏 𝐶𝐷 =
𝐽 𝐶𝐷

𝜏 𝐶𝐷 =
𝑇 𝐶𝐷 𝑟 𝐶𝐷
= 8000 𝑝𝑠𝑖=
2.8 𝑇 0 ( 0.5 𝑖𝑛) 𝑇 0=561 𝑙𝑏 . 𝑖𝑛
𝐽 𝐶𝐷 𝜋 4
(0.5 𝑖𝑛)
2

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒=𝑇 0 =561 𝑙𝑏 .𝑖𝑛

EXAMPLE 3.7

𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝑨𝑩

𝑇 𝐴𝐵 𝐿 𝐴𝐵 ( 561𝑙𝑏 . 𝑖𝑛)(24 𝑖𝑛)
𝜙𝐴/ 𝐵=
𝐺 𝐽 𝐴𝐵
=
6 𝜋 4
= 0.0387 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙 𝐴 / 𝐵 =2.22 0
(11.2 𝑥 10 ) (0.375 𝑖𝑛)
2

𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝑪𝑫

𝑇 𝐶𝐷 𝐿 𝐶𝐷 2.8(561 𝑙𝑏 . 𝑖𝑛)(36 𝑖𝑛)
𝜙𝐶 / 𝐷 =
𝐺 𝐽 𝐶𝐷
=
6 𝜋 4
= 0.0514 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜙𝐶 / 𝐷=2.95 0
(11.2 𝑥 10 ) ( 0.5 𝑖𝑛)
2

𝑺𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑫𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝑪𝑫 𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅

𝜙𝐶 / 𝐷=𝜙 𝐶 − 𝜙 𝐷 =𝜙 𝐶 − 0=2.95𝜙0 𝐶 =2.95 0

𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑨𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕 𝑨𝑩

𝜙 𝐴 / 𝐵 =2. 22 0 ¿ 𝜙 𝐴 − 𝜙 𝐵 =𝜙 𝐴 − 𝜙 𝐵 =2. 22 0𝜙 𝐵 𝑟 𝐵= 𝜙 𝐶 𝑟𝜙
𝐶 𝐵 ( 0.875 𝑖𝑛 ) =( 2.95 0)(2.45 𝑖𝑛)

𝜙 𝐴 =10 . 48 0 𝜙 𝐵= 8.26 0
EXAMPLE 3.8
EXAMPLE 3.8

𝑫𝒆𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 ;
EXAMPLE 3.8 ′
𝑳𝒆 𝒕 𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝒅𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒎 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆𝒊𝒔 𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 .
𝑭𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆 ;

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒕𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆

EXAMPLE 3.9

𝜏=?
 TORSION
DESIGN OF TRANSMISSION SHAFTS
 The principal specifications to be met in the design of a transmission shaft are the power to be transmitted and the
speed of rotation of the shaft.
 The role of the designer is to select the material and the dimensions of the cross section of the shaft, so that the
maximum shearing stress allowable in the material will not be exceeded when the shaft is transmitting the required
power at the specified speed.

𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 −𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝜔=2 𝜋 𝑓

𝑇h𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑚
𝜔 𝑖𝑠 𝑡h𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑁.
𝑠
=𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
𝑇h𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ( 𝜔 ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑑 /𝑠
𝜔=2 𝜋 𝑓 𝑓 = 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑇h𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑇h𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝐻𝑧 𝑜𝑟 1/ 𝑠
1 h𝑝=0.745 𝑘𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡
EXAMPLE 3.10

What size of shaft should be used for the rotor of a 5-hp motor operating at 3600 rpm if the shearing stress is not to exceed
8500 psi in the shaft?

𝑇𝑟
𝜏=
𝐽

(87.54 𝑙𝑏 .𝑖𝑛) 𝑟
8500 (𝑝𝑠𝑖)=
1 4
𝜋𝑟
2

𝑟 =0.1872 𝑖𝑛
𝑑=2 𝑟=0.374 𝑖𝑛
EXAMPLE 3.11
𝐹𝑙𝑦𝑤h𝑒𝑒𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐h𝑒𝑠 𝑢𝑝 𝑡𝑜 𝑡h𝑒 900 𝑟𝑝𝑚 𝑎𝑡 1 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑓 =900 𝑟𝑝𝑚=15 𝐻𝑧
𝑚=30 𝑘𝑔 𝜏 𝑎𝑙𝑙 =230 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜔=2 𝜋 𝑓 =2 𝜋 15=94.25 𝑟𝑎𝑑/ 𝑠

𝑑 𝑠h𝑎𝑓𝑡 =?
 TORSION
STRESS CONCENTRATION IN CIRCULAR SHAFTS
𝑻𝒐𝒓𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒔𝒎𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒇𝒕𝒔
 Localized stresses should be determined, experimentally.

 Shaft with varible cross sections

EXAMPLE 3.10
EXAMPLE 3.12

𝑇h𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒
𝑇 (1.875 𝑖𝑛)
8 𝑘𝑠𝑖=1.33 𝑇 =62.28 𝑘𝑖𝑝 .𝑖𝑛
1 4 4
𝜋 1.875 𝑖𝑛
2

𝑇h𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
•UNIT 4 BENDING
BENDING
BENDING
SYMMETRIC MEMBER IN PURE
BENDING
From statics;

Stresses under bending

 Three additional equations could be obtained by setting

equal to zero the sums of the y components, z components,
and moments about the x axis, but these equations would
involve only the components of the shearing stress and the
shear stresses are zero in pure bending condition.
BENDING
DEFORMATIONS IN A SYMMETRIC MEMBER IN PURE
BENDING

Deformation of member in pure bending;

 The member will remain symmetric with

respect to the plane of symmetry
 Since the bending moment M is the same in
any cross section, the member will bend
uniformly.  Pure bending creates uniaxial normal stress at any point
Thus, the line AB will have a constant curvature. of cross section.
 BENDING
Deformation with respect to neutral axis. The length of DE The length of JK

The deformation of JK

The normal strain in the elements of JK

Normal stress and the normal strain is zero at the neutral axis.
𝜎 𝑥 =0 𝜀𝑥 = 0
The maximum obsolute value of the strain
BENDING
STRESSES AND DEFORMATIONS IN THE ELASTIC RANGE

In the elastic region;

This result implies that the for a member

subjected to pure bending, the neutral axis
passes through the centroid of the section

The moment about z axis

BENDING
STRESSES AND DEFORMATIONS IN THE ELASTIC RANGE

Normal stress at any distance from the neutral axis

Inertia moment
(Second moment of the cross section)

𝐼=∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴
2  Stress is compressive above the neutral axis.
 Stress is tensile below the neutral axis.

For a rectangular cross section

 The beam with the

larger depth is more
effective in resisting
bending.
BENDING
STRESSES AND DEFORMATIONS IN THE ELASTIC RANGE

 The deformation of the member caused by the bending moment M is measured by the curvature of the neutral surface.
BENDING

Standart beam Wide-flange beam

Resisting in bending is very

effective in S-beams ve W-beams
since a large portion of their cross
section is located far from the
neutral axis.

𝐼𝑥>𝐼 𝑦 𝐼 𝑦>𝐼𝑥
EXAMPLE 4.1
EXAMPLE 4.2

 Tensile stress
 BENDING
DEFORMATIONS IN A TRANSVERSE CROSS
SECTION
EXAMPLE 4.3

SOLUTION
Bending moment
EXAMPLE 4.3
b) Radius of curvature
b)Radius of curvature Alternative solution
EXAMPLE 4.4

2
𝐴 1=20 𝑥 90= 1800𝑚𝑚
2
𝐴 2=30 𝑥 40=1200 𝑚𝑚

𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒊𝒅
 EXAMPLE 4.4
𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

𝑴𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔

𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂

 By using the parallel axis theorem:
EXAMPLE 4.5

𝒂¿ 𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒊𝒅.

𝒃¿ 𝑪𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒂

𝑦 𝑦 =85 , 8 𝑚𝑚
EXAMPLE 4.5
𝒂¿ 𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒕 𝒑𝒐𝒊𝒏𝒕 𝑪 .
𝐛 ¿ 𝑫𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎𝒏𝒐𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 .

𝒂¿ 𝑀𝑦 𝑀 =( 2 𝑘𝑁 ) ∗ (750 𝑚𝑚 )
𝜎=
𝐼 𝑀 =1500 𝑘𝑁𝑚𝑚

𝑐=30𝑚𝑚

𝒃¿

𝑀 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =( 2 𝑘𝑁 ) ∗ ( 1000 𝑚𝑚 )
𝑀 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =2000 𝑘𝑁𝑚𝑚
STRESS CONCENTRATION IN BENDING
EXAMPLE
 BENDING AXIAL LOADING IN A PLANE OF SYMMETRY
ECCENTRIC
EXAMPLE 4.5
EXAMPLE 4.6

Distance Between Centroidal and Neutral Axes

EXAMPLE 4.7
EXAMPLE 4.7

 The force P acting at the centroid causes a uniform stress distribution.

 The bending couple M causes a linear stress distribution.
EXAMPLE 4.7
UNSYMMETRIC
BENDING
Moment in plane of symmetry
 The neutral axis of the cross section will coincide with the
axis of the couple M representing the forces acting on that
section if, and only if, the couple vector M is directed along
one of the principal centroidal axes of the cross section.

Moment on
principal centroidal axis

Moment not in plane of symmetry  Since the vertical plane is not a

plane of symmetry, we cannot
expect the member to bend in that
plane, or the neutral axis of the
section to coincide with the axis of
the couple.

Moment not on
principal centroidal axis
UNSYMMETRIC
BENDING
A member with a vertical plane of symmetry, which is subjected
to bending couples acting in a plane forming an angle with the
vertical plane.
UNSYMMETRIC
BENDING

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒏𝒆𝒖𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒔

 Since the normal stress is zero at any point of the neutral axis:

 By solving for y
EXAMPLE 4.8
EXAMPLE 4.8

𝑇h𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑀 𝑧

𝑇h𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑀 𝑦

𝑇h𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐴

 .

𝑇h𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

GENERAL CASE OF ECCENTRIC
LOADING

 Since the normal stress is zero at any point of the neutral axis
EXAMPLE 4.9
EXAMPLE 4.9
 The stress due to the centric load P is negative and uniform across the section.

𝑇h𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑜 𝑀 𝑥 occurs at AB surface

𝑇h𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑀 𝑥 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝐷 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝜎 1=1.5 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝑇h𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑀 𝑧 occurs at BC surface

𝑇h𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑜 𝑀 𝑧 occurs at AD surface

𝜎 1=− 0.625 𝑀𝑃𝑎
EXAMPLE 4.9
𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡h𝑒 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
EXAMPLE 4.9
EXAMPLE 4.10

𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

EXAMPLE 4.10
 The stress due to the centric load P

𝑇h𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑜 𝑀 𝑥

𝑇h𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑑𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑜 𝑀 𝑦

𝑇h𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

•UNIT 5 Analysis and Design
of Beams for Bending
Analysis and Design of Beams for Bending

 Steel and aluminum beams play an important part in both structural and mechanical engineering.
 In most cases, the loads are perpendicular to the axis of the beam.
 Such a transverse loading causes only bending and shear in the beam.

Transverse loads in beams

Analysis and Design of Beams for Bending

 Beams are classified according to the way in which they are supported.
STATICALLY DETERMINATE BEAMS

STATICALLY INDETERMINATE BEAMS

Analysis and Design of Beams for Bending

 When a beam is subjected to transverse loads, the internal forces in any section of the beam will generally consist of
a shear force V and a bending couple M

 The bending couple M creates normal stresses in the cross section.

 The shear force V creates shearing stresses in that section.

Analysis and Design of Beams for Bending
EXAMPLE 5.1

0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿/ 2
 We first determine the reactions at the
supports from the free-body diagram of the
𝑀= ( )
𝑃
2
𝑥

entire beam 𝑃
𝑉=
2

L/ 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿

𝑀= ( )
𝑃
2
𝐿
𝑥 − 𝑃 (𝑥− )
2

𝑃
𝑉 =−
2
EXAMPLE 5.1

0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿/ 2
𝑀= ( )
𝑃
2
𝑥

𝑃
𝑉=
2

L/ 2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝐿

𝑀= ( )
𝑃
2
𝐿
𝑥 − 𝑃 (𝑥− )
2

𝑃
𝑉 =−
2
EXAMPLE 5.2

0≤ 𝑥≤ 𝐿
EXAMPLE 5.2

2 4 6

Reaction forces
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2.5 𝑚
∑ 𝑀 𝐵=0; 𝑅 𝐷 =14 𝑘𝑁
2
∑𝑦
𝐹 =0; −𝑉 −20=0
2 𝑉 =− 20 𝑘𝑁
2

∑ 𝑀 𝐷=0; 𝑅 𝐵 =56 𝑘𝑁
𝑥
∑ 2
𝑀 =0; + 𝑀 +20 𝑥=0 + 𝑀 =− 20 𝑥
2 2

∑𝑦
2.5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5.5 𝑚
2.5 𝑚 𝐹 =0; −𝑉 − 20+ 46=0
4 𝑉 =26 𝑘𝑁
4

∑ 4
𝑀 =0; + 𝑀 + 20 𝑥 − 46( 𝑥 − 2.5)=0
4

+ 𝑀 4 =+26 𝑥 −115

𝑥
EXAMPLE 5.2

2 4 6 𝑆h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

5 .5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 7.5 𝑚
2.5 𝑚 3 𝑚

∑ 𝐹 𝑦 =0; −𝑉 6 −20 + 46 − 40= 0

𝑉 6 =−14 𝑘𝑁

∑ 𝑀6=0; + 𝑀 6 + 20 𝑥 − 46 ( 𝑥 −2.5 ) + 40 ( 𝑥 −5.5)= 0

+ 𝑀 6 =−14 𝑥 +105
EXAMPLE 5.3

Reaction forces and moments

∑ 𝑀 𝐵=0; 3 𝑥 8 𝑥 12 −20 +10 𝑥 5+ 𝑀 𝐵=0

𝑀 𝐵 =− 318 𝑘𝑖𝑝 . 𝑓𝑡

∑ 𝐹 𝑦 =0; − 3 𝑥 8 − 10 + 𝑅 𝐵= 0
𝑅 𝐵 =38 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
EXAMPLE 5.3 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 8 𝑓𝑡

8 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 11 𝑓𝑡

11 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 16 𝑓𝑡
EXAMPLE 5.3
RELATIONS AMONG LOAD, SHEAR, AND BENDING MOMENT

Integrating this equation between points C and D; we write

Area under load curve between C and D

 These equations are valid only when distributed loads are applied since
they do not take into account the sudden change in shear caused by a
concentrated load
Relations between Shear and Bending Moment

 This is true at any point where no concentrated load is applied.

 Integrating this equation between points C and D; we write

Area under shear curve between C and D

EXAMPLE 5.4

The reactions at the supports

1
𝑅 𝐴=𝑉 𝐴 = 𝜔 𝐿
2
EXAMPLE 5.4

 Once the shear diagram has been drawn, and after M has
been determined at one of the ends of the beam, the value of
the bending moment can then be obtained at any given point
by computing the area under the shear curve
EXAMPLE 5.5

Draw the shear and bending-moment diagrams for the beam and loading shown.
Reaction forces

A-B section B-C section C-D section D-E section

18 −20 − 𝑉 𝐵𝐶 =0 18 −20 − 12− 𝑉 𝐶𝐷=0 18 −20 − 12+26 −1.5 𝑥 − 𝑉 𝐷𝐸 =0
18 −𝑉 𝐴𝐵 =0
𝑉 𝐵𝐶 =−2 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑉 𝐶𝐷 =−14 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑉 𝐷𝐸 =12 −1.5 𝑥 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 =18 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑉 =0 =0 =− 1.5
=0 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
EXAMPLE 5.5
D-E section
A-B section B-C section C-D section
18 −𝑉 𝐴𝐵 =0 18 −20 − 𝑉 𝐵𝐶 = 0 18 −20 − 12− 𝑉 𝐶𝐷=0 18 −20 − 12+26 −1.5 𝑥 − 𝑉 𝐷𝐸 =0
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 =18 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑉 𝐵𝐶 =−2 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑉 𝐶𝐷 =−14 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑉 𝐷𝐸 =12 −1.5 𝑥 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
=0 =0 =0 =− 1.5
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 EXAMPLE 5.6
The W360 X79 rolled-steel beam AC is simply supported and
carries the uniformly distributed load shown. Draw the shear
and bending-moment diagrams for the beam and determine the
location and magnitude of the maximum normal stress due to
bending.

𝑅 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑅 𝐴=80 𝑘𝑁 𝑅 𝐶 =40 𝑘𝑁

A-B section B-C section

80 − 20 𝑥 −𝑉 𝐴𝐵 =0 80 − 120 −𝑉 𝐵𝐶 =0
𝑉 𝐴 =80 −20 𝑥 𝑉 𝐵𝐶 =− 40

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑉
=− 20 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 EXAMPLE 5.7

𝑅 𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑀 𝐵 − 𝑀 𝐴 =−18 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 . 𝑓𝑡

𝑅 𝐴=− 0.65 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠
𝑀 𝐵 =−18 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 . 𝑓𝑡
𝑅 𝐵 =8.35 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 𝑀 𝐶 − 𝑀 𝐵 =+18 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 . 𝑓𝑡
𝐴− 𝐵 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑀 𝐶 =0 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 . 𝑓𝑡
− 0 .65− 0.4 𝑥 − 𝑉 𝐴𝐵=0
𝑉 𝐴𝐵 =−0.65 − 0.4 𝑥
𝑑𝑉
=− 0.4
𝑑𝑥
𝐵 −𝐶 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
− 0 .65− 0.4 𝑥 8+8.35 − 𝑉 𝐵𝐶 =0
𝑉 𝐵𝐶 =4 .5
•UNIT 6 Shearing Stresses in
Beams
Shearing Stresses in Beams

 When shearing stresses are exerted on the

vertical faces of an element, equal stresses
must be exerted on the horizontal faces of the
same element. We thus conclude that
longitudinal shearing stresses must exist in
any member subjected to a transverse loading.

 When a transverse load P is applied to the free end of this composite beam, the
planks are observed to slide with respect to each other

 The various planks will bend into concentric arcs of circle and will not slide
with respect to each other, thus verifying the fact that shear does not occur in a
beam subjected to pure bending
Shearing Stresses in Beams

 While sliding does not actually take place when a transverse load P is applied to a beam made of a homogeneous and
cohesive material such as steel, the tendency to slide does exist, showing that stresses occur on horizontal longitudinal
planes as well as on vertical transverse planes.

 In the case of timber beams, whose resistance to shear is weaker between fibers, failure due to shear will occur along
a longitudinal plane rather than a transverse plane
SHEAR ON THE HORIZONTAL FACE OF A BEAM ELEMENT

𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡h=𝒔𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘

𝐼=𝑇h𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎

∆ 𝐻 =𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑉 𝐶 =¿ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙´ 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒¿

𝑉 𝐷 =¿ 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙´ 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ¿

EXAMPLE 6.1

A beam is made of three planks, 20 by 100 mm in cross section,

nailed together. Knowing that the spacing between nails is 25
mm and that the vertical shear in the beam is V=500 N,
determine the shearing force in each nail.
DETERMINATION OF THE SHEARING STRESSES IN A BEAM

For a Narrow Rectangular Beam

𝑡 =𝑏
EXAMPLE 6.2

𝐽𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑎

𝑅 𝐴=𝑅 𝐵 =1.5 𝑘𝑁

𝑉 =1.5 𝑘𝑁 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑛 − 𝑛
𝑡 =0.02 𝑚
EXAMPLE 6.2

𝐽𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑏

𝑅 𝐴=𝑅 𝐵 =1.5 𝑘𝑁

𝑉 =1.5 𝑘𝑁 𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑛 − 𝑛
𝑡 =0.02 𝑚
EXAMPLE 6.3

𝑅 𝐴=𝑅 𝐵 =3 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠

Design Based on Allowable Normal Stress

𝐼 2
𝑆= =0.5833 𝑑
𝑐
EXAMPLE 6.3

Checking Shear Stress

Design Based on Allowable Shear Stress

•UNIT 7 Transformation of
Stress and Strains

General state of stress at a point

TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE
STRESS
𝜎 𝑧 =𝜏 𝑥𝑧 =𝜏 𝑦𝑧 =0
TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE
STRESS Forces exerted on the three faces
TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE
STRESS
TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE
STRESS

𝐵𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡h𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃 𝑏𝑦 𝑡h𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜃+ 90

The sum of the normal stresses exerted on a cubic element of material is independent
of the orientation of that element
TRANSFORMATION OF PLANE
STRESS

 These equations are parametric equations of a circle.

Equation of a circle of radius R centered at the point C

 By making some arrangements using these two
equations we obtain following equation of a circle
PRINCIPAL STRESSES and PRINCIPAL PLANES

𝜎 𝑥− 𝜎 𝑦
𝜏 𝑥´ 𝑦´ =− 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 +𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃= 0
2
PRINCIPAL STRESSES and PRINCIPAL
PLANES

𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛= 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠

𝜃𝑝 = 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑠
MAXIMUM SHEARING STRESS

Maximum shear planes

𝜎 𝑥 + 𝜎 𝑦 𝜎 𝑥 −𝜎 𝑦 𝜎𝑥 + 𝜎 𝑦
𝜎 𝑥´ = + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃 =𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒=
2 2 2

𝜎 𝑥− 𝜎 𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 +𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝜃=0
2

Maximum shear stress 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔max 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

PRINCIPAL STRESSES; MAXIMUM SHEARING
STRESS
Maximum shear planes Maximum principal planes

(𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 𝑠 )(𝑡𝑎𝑛 2 𝜃 𝑝 )=− 1

( 2 𝜃𝑝 ) −( 2 𝜃 𝑠)=90
( 𝜃𝑝 ) −(𝜃 𝑠 )=45

 The planes of maximum shearing stress are at 450 to the principal planes
EXAMPLE 7.1

For the state of plane stress shown in the figure, determine (a) the principal planes, (b) the
principal stresses, (c) the maximum shearing stress and the corresponding normal stress.

Principal planes

Principal stresses
EXAMPLE 7.1

Maximum shearing stress The plane corresponding to maximum shear stress

0
𝜃 𝑠 =− 18.4

𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔max 𝑠h𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠

EXAMPLE 7.2
EXAMPLE 7.2
Normal Stresses
𝑀𝑐 1
𝜎 𝑥 =0 𝜎 𝑦= 𝐼=
4
𝜋 0.6 𝑐=0.6 𝑖𝑛 𝜎 𝑦 =8.84 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝐼 4

Shearing Stress
𝑇𝑐 1 4 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 =7.96 𝑘𝑠𝑖
𝜏 𝑥𝑦 = 𝐽 = 𝜋 0.6
𝐽 2

Principal Planes and Principal Stresses

𝜃𝑝 =− 30.50 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃𝑝 =59.5 0

𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =13.52 𝑘𝑠𝑖

𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =− 4.68 𝑘𝑠𝑖
 EXAMPLE 7.2
Principal Stresses Principal Planes
0
𝜎 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =13.52 𝑘𝑠𝑖 𝜃𝑝 =− 30.5
𝜎 𝑚𝑖𝑛 =− 4.68 𝑘𝑠𝑖 𝜃𝑝 =59.5 0

𝜎 𝑥´ =−4.68 𝑘𝑠𝑖 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜃𝑝 =− 30.50

MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE
STRESS

𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒏𝒐𝒕𝒆 :
𝐼𝑓 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑋 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑡h𝑒 𝜎 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑌 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 .
𝐼𝑓 𝜏 𝑥𝑦 𝑖𝑠𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑋 𝑖𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑡h𝑒 𝜎 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑌 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤 .
MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE
STRESS

 Shear and normal stresses at any plane can be found using Mohr’s circle.
MOHR’S CIRCLE FOR PLANE
STRESS
 Mohr’s circle can be used to verify the fact that the planes of maximum shearing stress are at 450 to the principal
planes.
EXAMPLE 7.3

(a) construct Mohr’s circle, (b) determine the principal stresses, (c) determine the maximum
shearing stress and the corresponding normal stress.
𝑋 (50 , − 40)

𝑌 (−10 , 40)
Construction of Mohr’s Circle
EXAMPLE 7.3
Principal Planes and Principal Stresses
EXAMPLE 7.3
Maximum Shearing Stress.

0 0 0
2 𝜃 𝑠 =53.1 +90 = 143.1

0
𝜃 𝑠 =71.55

𝜏 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =50 𝑀𝑃𝑎

𝜎 𝑎𝑣𝑒=20 𝑀𝑃𝑎
Stresses under axial loading using Mohr’s circle.

0
𝐴𝑡 45
Stresses under torsion using Mohr’s circle.
EXAMPLE 7.4

𝑋 (100 , 48)
𝑌 (60 , − 48)
EXAMPLE 7.4

Principal Planes and Principal Stresses

𝑋 (100 , 48)
𝑌 (60 , − 48)
EXAMPLE 7.4

Stress Components on Element Rotated 300

EXAMPLE 7.5
EXAMPLE 7.5