Introduction to computer science

Prepared by Department of Computer Science1

In this course you will:-
 Explain foundation ,concepts and principles of

computer science.
 Identify different application areas of computers.

 Distinguish hardware and software components of

the computer system.

 Explain how data is represented in the computer

system.
 Explain the computer organization and

architecture.
 Explain about the basic concepts of computer

networking and the Internet.

 Explain basic concepts of programming in general.

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In this chapter you will specifically:
 Define the discipline computer science.
 Define clearly what is term computer.
 Identify the characteristics of computer.
 Explain the application areas of computer.
 Explain History and generation of

computer.
 Identify the different type of computer.

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 Introduction to computers
What Computer Science?
It is a science concerned with representation, storage,
manipulation and presentation of information.
computer science uses a special device called
computer.
Sub disciplines(specialization) of computer science:
 Software Engineering:- concerned about the development

of a better quality software by applying scientific and

basic engineering principle.
 Computer Engineering (Architecture) :-studying, analyzing

and designing of computer hardware and its working

principle.(organization & interconnection of computer
system component)
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5
 Introduction to computers

What is COMPUTER?
• A computer is an electronic device that accepts
data, processes the accepted data, and then
displays the result.
• More accurately, A computer is a machine which
receive an input(data), processes it according to a
predefined program/instruction and then stores it,
and gives an output, i.e. provides the result in
printed or visual form.

• The word ‘computer’ comes from the Latin word

‘compute’ means to calculate.
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 History of computers
 Computers was first invented to calculate huge
mathematical tasks.
 A. The Abacus
 It is the earliest mechanical computational device.
 It was in use in the middle east as early as 2500B.C.
 Simple addition and subtraction can be carried out
rapidly and efficiently by positioning the beads
appropriately.

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 History of computers
B. Pascal’s calculator
 It is the first true mechanical calculator.
 It was invented by a French mathematician called Blasé
Pascal in 1642 and its known as Pascaline (Pascal's
calculator)
C. The difference engine
 Charles Babbage, a nineteenth century professor at
Cambridge University, is considered to be the father of
modern digital computers.
 The important contribution of Babbage’s engine was its
ability to perform computations and print results
automatically.

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 History of computers
 In 1842, Babbage comes out with his new idea
of Analytical Engine that was intended to be
completely automatic.

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 History of computers
 D. Herman Hollerith's tabulating machine
 Herman Hollerith is a statistician in 1880 and
he develop his machine to speed up the
process of census data.
 He develops his machine that uses the punched
card.
E. Mark I
 Developed by Howard A. at Harvard university
(1944)
 which were the first electromechanical
computer.
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 History of computers
 F. The ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Calculator)
 It was the first general purpose digital computer.
 It is very huge occupying 15,000 square feet room and
use 18000 vacuum tubes.
 The major drawback was it has to be programmed
manually by setting switches and plugging &
Unplugging cables.
 It doesn’t use internally stored memory.

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 History of computers
G. The Von Neumann Machine
 Van Neumann forward the stored program.
concept of the ENIAC project.
i.e. It designing the computer to get its
instruction by reading them from memory.
H. Commercial Computers
 The 1950s century was the birth of computers
industry with two companies, Spery and IBM, by
demonstrating the market place.
i.e. The development of successful commercial
computer called UNIVACI(Universal
Automatic Computer)
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 History of computers
New Pen Computers

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 History of computers
Continue…

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 History of computers
Continue…

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 Generation of computers
 Generation in computer language is a steps in
technology.
 We have five generation of computer
 The major characteristics that distinguish
these generations of computer are the
following.
 Types of electronic circuit element used
 Major secondary storage media used
 Computer language used.
Types of operating system used
Memory access time (time to store or retrieve a
word of data from memory). 16
 Generation of computers
A. First Generation computers (1944-1955)
 used vacuum tubes as the principal electronic
components.
 punched cards were the main sources of input and
 magnetic grams were used for internal storage.
 Memory access time was expressed in milliseconds.
 Very large in size, slow in performance and expensive
in price.
 They uses machine & assembly language.
 Most application were scientific calculation.
 ENIAC & UNIVACI are examples of 1st generation
computers.

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 Generation of computers
B. Second Generation Computers (1955-1964)
 Transistor were the main ckt element.
-Transistors are solid state device made from silicon.
 Magnetic tapes were used for main storage media.
 Memory access times were expressed in microseconds
 Emergence of high-level programming languages, like
FORTRAN, COBOL, & ALGOL. (Easy to write)
 Batch operating systems is used that permit rapid
processing of magnetic tape files.
 They are much faster than 1st generation computers.

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 Generation of computers
C. Third Generation Computers (1964-1975)
 Transistors are replaced by Integrated circuits(IC)
 Magnetic disc storage became popular and
provided direct access to very large data files.
 Access time in these computers was measured in
nanoseconds (billionths of a second).
 Structured programming languages were
introduced :PASCAL and BASIC.
 Creation of an independent software industry.

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 Generation of computers
 D. Fourth Generation Computers (1975-1989)
 ICs are replaced by Large Scale Integration (LSI)
 Access time in these computers was measured in
nanoseconds (billionths of a second).
 Creation of MICROPROCESSOR. (for PCs).
 Spread of high-speed computer networking.
(LAN & WAN)
 Several new operating systems were developed,
like MS-DOS, Ms- Windows, and UNIX.
 Totally general purpose machines.

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 Generation of computers
E. Fifth Generation computes (1989- Present)
 Totally general purpose machines.
 Very Large Scale Integration(VLSI) technology and
also Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) emerged.
 Larger main memory > = 256 Mb, and hard disk
>= 80 GB are common
 Optical disks emerged named as CD-ROMs
 Distributed operating system for computer
network.
 Portable notebook computers, powerful desktop
PCs, and workstations, powerful servers and
supercomputers
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 Generation of computers
E. Fifth Generation computes (1989- Present)
 VLSI technology becomes Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI).
 Portable notebook computers, powerful desktop PCs, and workstations,
powerful servers and supercomputers
 Larger main memory > = 256 Mb, and hard disk >= 80 GB are common
 Optical disks emerged named as CD-ROMs
 Distributed operating system for computer network.

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element tube

SSD Punched Magnetic Magnetic Mass

card Tape disk Device
storage

Language Machine & Fortran, Structured Application

Assembly COBOL language oriented
Etc
Operating Operator Batch Application Time
system control system oriented sharing

Mem. 1ms 10µs 10ns 1ns

Access time

Approx. date 1946-57 1958-64 1965-71 From 1971

above

Examples ENIAC, IBM7090, IBM Late IBM

UNIVAC, 7094 system Products
UDVAC 23 23
 Characteristics of Computer
1. STORAGE
 Computes can handle large amount of data.
 Once recorded, The information can never be
forgotten and can be retrieved with a fraction of
a second.

Its storage capacity is measured as follows:

Bit = The smallest information stored in a computer(0 or
1).
 Byte = character = 8 bits.
 Kilobyte (KB) = 1024 bytes.
 Megabyte (MB) = 1024 Kilobytes.
 Gigabyte (GB) = 1024 Megabytes.
 Terabyte (TB) = 1024 Gigabytes 24
 Characteristics of Computer
2. SPEED
 Computers are very fast devices.
 They work at an incredible speed and perform
millions of calculations and comparisons in a
second.
Its speed is measured by:
 Millisecond = 1/1000 of a second.
 Microsecond = 1/1000,000 of a second.
 Nanosecond = 1/1000,000,000 of a second.
 Pico second = 1/1000,000,000,000 of a second.

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 Characteristics of Computer
3. ACCURACY
 Computers process vast amount of data in a very high
speed without committing errors
 Errors can occur mainly due to humans’ incorrect
input data, and program instructions with a problem.
(often called GIGO).
4. DILIGENCE
 Computers are not bored or become tired of
performing many thousands of calculations
repeatedly.
5. VERSATILITY
 A computer is capable of performing almost any
task provided that the task can be reduced to a
series of logical steps.
For example, the same computer used for process
payroll can also be used for Design computations
or to track Inventory. 26
 Characteristics of Computer
6. DURABILITY and RELIABILITY
 Computers are durable and extremely reliable

devices.
 They can operate error-free over long periods of

time.
7. LACK of DECISION-MAKING
 Computers do not have the capacity to think by

their own.
 Their IQ is zero and they had to be told what to

do and in what sequence.

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 Types of Computers
 There are different types of Computers. Their difference
is depending on different categories of characteristics.
Classification by the method of operation
(processing)
1.Analog 2. Digital 3. Hybrid
1. Analog Computers
 Analog computers operate by measuring.
 They deal with continues variables;
 They are special purpose computers.
 They have limited accuracy.
Examples:
• Thermometer • Voltmeter
• Speedometer
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 Types of Computers
2. Digital Computers
It deal with discrete variables.
They operate by counting rather than measuring.
Examples:
• Abacus
• Desk & pocket computers
• The general purpose computers.
Digital computers have higher accuracy and
speed than the analog ones.

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 Types of Computers
3. Hybrid computers
 The best features of analog and digital
computers can be combined into a single
device to form a hybrid computer.
Example:
 hospital insensitive (will convert the
patient’s heart function, temp, etc in to
number and supplied to digital comp,)
 Gasoline pomp (will convert the flow of
pumped fuel)

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 Types of Computers
Classification by purpose of application
 Classified into two(Special & General)
1. Special purpose computers
They are designed to solve a single type of
problem,
Example:
 The public telephone box.
 Traffic control system .
 Ticket machines (used in hotel, super market etc.)
 Pocket calculators etc.
 Most Analog computers are special purpose
computers.
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 Types of Computers
2. General purpose computers
 They are designed to solve variety of problems
through the use of “store program concept”.
 The same computer can be applied to solve
another set of problem using different
program.
 They are more flexible and versatile.
Example:
 Micro computers
 Mini computers
 Super computers etc.
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 Types of Computers
Classification based on their size, cost and
power of execution
• Supercomputers • Mainframe computers
• Minicomputers • Microcomputers
1.Supercomputers
Supercomputers are the largest, most powerful,
fast, extremely high storage and most expensive
computers.
computing speeds several times faster than
mainframe computers
primarily used for processing complex scientific
applications.
speeds measured in nanoseconds and even in
picoseconds
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 Types of Computers
Some application areas of super computers
 Weapons research (Military Industry)
 Large simulation in Aerospace & Automobile
industry
 Oil exploration in the petroleum industry etc.
2. Main frame computers
 Mainframe computers are large computers
frequently used in large organizations like
banks, insurance companies, hospitals, airline
reservation etc,
 Needs to process large number of transaction
online and require computer system having
massive data storage and processing power. 34
 Types of Computers
 They are housed in a controlled and central
location with several user terminal connected to
them.
 The main difference between a mainframe and a

super computer is that,

 a super computer channels all its power into
executing a few programs as fast as possible,
where as a mainframe uses its power to
execute many programs concurrently.

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 Types of Computers
3. Minicomputers
 They are mainframe having smaller
configuration (small hosts, less storage space
and fewer user terminals)
 They are used in small companies.
 They can be accessed by more than one user at

a time and are used in many application areas.

 They are smaller & less powerful than

mainframe.
 They are large and more powerful than micro

computers
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 Types of Computers

4. Microcomputers
 Also known as personal computers (pc).
 Use Microprocessors inside it.
 Generally designed to be used by one person at

a time. (Single user).

 They have limited input and output capacities

and little storage capacity.

 A microcomputer with a powerful

microprocessor & a high quality monitor is

called a workstation.

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 Types of Computers
Two physical models of PCs are:
 Desktop model
 Tower model

 Other portable PCs are:-

Laptop, Notebook, palmtop
etc.

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Why we use Computers?
Store and process large amount of
information with high speed and accuracy.
Transmit information across continents
through communication medias.
Perform complex mathematical
computations and make comparisons.
Simulate events;
Monitor ongoing industrial operations;
Perform repetitive processes great ease,
speed, and reliability.

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 The main areas of computer
applications
IN OFFICES: - Type writers are being
replaced by computers.
IN EDUCATION: - Computers are
widely used in educational fields; for
instruction and administration
/Interactive education/
 CAL-Computer Aided Learning
 CAI-Computer Assisted Instruction
IN LBRARIES
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IN COMMUNICATION:- Computers
can be used in different ways for
communication purpose between
users. This can include:
- Fax- hard copy - Electronic mail -Internet
IN RESEARCH
IN BUSINESS
IN MANUFACTURING
Computers can be used in production
process, from the design stage to the
manufacturing stage.
CAD- Computer Aided Design
CAM- Computer Aided Manufacturing
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 Application of Computers

IN MEDICINE E.g. telemedicine

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 CHAPTER
TWO
Components of a
Computer System

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Components of a Computer System

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 Components of a Computer System
A computer system composed of Computer
hardware and Computer software.
Computer Hardware
 The physical components which we can touch
and see.
We can further classify the hardware as follows:
Input devices
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Memory Unit (Primary memory/Main memory) Storage unit
Secondary storage devices
Output devices.

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 Components of a Computer System
1. Input Devices
 Input is the process of giving or inserting data
and instructions to the computer system.
 Functions of input devices are:
 It accepts (read) instructions and data from the
outside world
 It converts these instructions and data into
computer acceptable form.
Examples of input devices:-
• Keyboard • Mouse
• Scanner • Light pen
• Microphone • Bar code reader
• Voice synthesizer • Touch Screen etc.
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Components of a Computer System

Basic organization of a computer system

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 Components of a Computer System
2.The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
 It is the main component of a computer.
 Consists of the Control Unit, Arithmetic Logic Unit
 Very costly.
Purpose of CPU
 Fetch instruction from memory.
 Interpret instruction.
 Fetch data from memory or input units.
 Process data.
 Write data to the user or output devices.

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 Components of a Computer System
The Control Unit
 Performs all the control functions of the computer.
 Fetches the instruction from memory.
 Determines the next instruction to be executed by
the computer.
 Serves as the computer traffic cope.
The Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
 Referred as the computers "number crunchier".
 Performs the arithmetic operations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division)
Registers: are temporary storage locations for
managing instructions and data as they are being
processed in control & ALU. 49
 Components of a Computer System
Memory Unit (Primary Memory)
 Directly accessible by the control unit and ALU.
 The main memory has two parts.
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
 ROM (Read only Memory)
RAM is:-Small in storage capacity
- Fast in processing speed
- Volatile
- Expensive in price.
ROM is:-non-volatile
-permanent data storage
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 Components of a Computer System
Secondary storages:
 Are non-volatile, they store data and information
permanently,
 Are cheap or low in cost,
 Operating speed far slower than the primary
storage.
 Store large amount of information.
Example : Types of magnetic disks
Floppy disk
Hard disk
Types of optical disks
CD-R
CD-RW
DVD R/RW 51
 Components of a Computer System
Output Devices
 Output is computer produced text, graphics, or
sound in hard-copy or soft-copy format that can
be used by people.
 Output device- is an electromechanical device
that accepts data from a computer and translates
them into a form suitable for use by the user.
Examples of output device are:
-Printers -Monitors (screens)
-Speakers -Plotters ,etc

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 Components of a Computer System
 BUS:- is an electrical pathway through which bits
are transmitted between the various computer
components.
There are three buses inside the computer
 Address Bus: is a unidirectional bus over which digital
information is transferred to identify either a particular
memory location or particular I/O address.
 Data Bus: a bus system which interconnects the CPU,
memory and all the peripheral Input/output devices of a
computer system for the purpose of exchanging data.
 Control Bus: a bus used to select and enable an area of
main storage and transmit signals required to regulate
the computer operation.
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 Computer Software Components
 Software is a set of instruction or programs that
order the hardware what to do or to do something
 Program is a finite set of instructions (steps) that

the computer follow to perform a given job.

 Software: - Is a collection of programs.
 Software also includes documentations, rules and

operational procedures.
 It is an essential component of the computer

system. Without the software, the computer

hardware cannot solve our problems.
 Software acts as intermediate b/n USER
the user and the electronic components Software
of the computer. Hardware54
 Computer Software Components
Computer software is classified into two major class
1. System software 2. Application software
1. System software
Are programs which facilitate the work of the
computer hardware.
It organizes and manages the machine’s resources,
handles the input/output devices.
It controls the hardware by performing functions
that users shouldn’t have to or are unable to handle
System programs make complex hardware more
user friendly.
It enables the computer to understand
programming languages i.e. it serves as means of
communication between user and a computer. 55
 Computer Software Components
 The important categories of system software are:
A) Operating system B) Language software
A) Operating system
 Operating system coordinates the activity between
the user and the computer.
 It also provides an interface between a user and
an application program and the hardware.
 Directing all processing activities within computer,
 calling in other systems software when needed,
scheduling jobs, allocating storage facilities,
activating input and output devices, etc. are some
of the importance of operating systems software.
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 Computer Software Components
 An operating system has three major functions.
i. Controlling operations (control program)
ii. Input/output Management
iii. Command Processing (command Interpreter)
i. Controlling operations (control program)
 Coordinates, or supervises the activity of the
computer system.
 Decides where programs and data should be
stored in the computer memory.
 Handles communications among the computer
components, applications software and the user.
 Controls the saving and retrieving of files to and
from disks in the disk drive.
 It performs all its controlling tasks with out the
involvement or awareness of the user. 57
 Computer Software Components
ii. Input/output Management
 The I/O manager coordinates,
The computers communication with outside
world,
The flow of data to the display screen and other
output devices (printers/ plotters) and
The flow of data from the key board or other
input devices.
 Handles the flow of data to and from the disk
drives (file management).
 Handles the process of preparing a disk for use,
the copying, renaming, erasing task of a file.
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 Computer Software Components
iii. Command Processing (command Interpreter)
 It interprets the commands or what you enter
using the keyboard or other input devices.
 If you write an internal command it carries out the
function of that command if it is external
command or other executable file it searches for
the corresponding file in the default (current disk)
or the user specified disk, loads the file into
memory and transfers control to that program.
Once this program is terminated, control returns
to command and the program for that command or
file is discarded from memory.
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 Computer Software Components
Types of Operating Systems
 Operating systems can be classified by:
The number of programs they can handle at a
time and
The number of users they serve at once at one
or different stations (i.e. terminals or micro-
computers connected to a central computer).
i. Single tasking operating systems.
ii. Multi user operating system.
iii. Real Time Operating System.

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 Computer Software Components
i. Single tasking operating systems
 With single tasking operating systems only one
program can be run on a computer at a time.
ii. Multi user operating system
 It supports a number of work stations connected
to a central system.
 A number of users can use the resources of one
high capacity computer by the help of terminals.
iii. Real Time Operating System
 A real time is a system that is capable of
processing data so quickly that the results are
available to influence the activity currently taking
place.
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 Computer Software Components
B) Language Software.
 Are systems software that serves to write set of
instructions or programs that are required to solve
a problem.
 Are software which are used by programmers to
develop application software and translate
programs to machine code.
 They provide a set of rules, symbols, and special
words to construct a program.
 They serve as editors and translators to develop
programs in a number of programming languages.
 Includes:- translators, general purpose routines &
utilities and high level languages
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 Computer Software Components
 Translator:- is a program that converts one or
more languages to another language.(3 types)
Assemblers:-is a program that translates
assembly languages into machine code.
Compiler:-is a program that translates a high level
language into machine code.(Pascal, Fortran,
Cobol)
Interpreter:-is a program that translates each
instruction of high level language & executes the
instruction before translating the next instruction.
 The general-purpose routine and utilities include
programs which are used to handle file processing,
editing and debugging.
 High level language software is a software which
has its own compilers to detect syntax errors of 63
 Computer Software Components
Application Software
 Is a software that is designed to perform tasks for
the specific areas.
Type of application software
1.Word Processors/ Word processing
 It is a computerized typewriter which permits the
electronic creation, editing, formatting, filing and
printing text.
Example:-WordStar, WordPerfect, Microsoft word
2.Spreadsheet (is an electronic worksheet)
 Using the programs built-in function you can
perform complicated calculations complex
mathematical problem.
E.g. Lotus 1-2-3,MicrosoftExcel,Quatropro 64
 Computer Software Components
3. Database management system.
 Allow you to store information on a computer,

retrieve it when you need it and update it when

necessary.
Example: Microsoft Access, Oracle, SQL Server
Dbase IV, FoxPro, etc.
4. Computer Graphics
 Computer graphics is the technique of creating,

editing, displaying and printing graphs, diagrams,

charts and images in a computer system.
 Graphics can communicate information that would

be difficult or even impossible to put into words.

Popular e.g. Lotus Freelance, Harvard Graphics,
Print master, etc 65
66
1. What is the term computer? (1 point)
2. List and explain at lest four(4) characteristics
of computer? (2 points)
3. List the major characteristics that distinguish
the generations of computer? (2 points)

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 CHAPTER
three
Data Representation Method

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 Data Representation Method

Objective
To understand how really data
represented, flow, store and processed
inside the computer.
To explain different coding methods
and
To explain units of data representation.

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 Data Representation Method

Data versus information

 Data is defined as raw facts about something represented by
characteristics such as letters, numbers and other symbols.
o Data takes variety of forms including numeric, text, voice
and images.

 Information is a collection of meaningful facts and figures that

can be used as basis for guidance and decision making. Therefore
data is a row fact of information and information is the
processed data. Data is meaningless by itself, but it gives
meaningful information after processed.
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 Data Representation Method
 A word in the memory of computer can represent
character data or numeric data.
 When we say character data they are letters and

digits (A-Z or a-z or 0-9), special symbols such

as ?,*,+ … and control characters which used to
control devices.
 But since computers is an electronic device which

understands electrical signal there is no letter,

symbol or number inside the computer.
 The most elementary form to organize data in an

electronic device is in the form of a code which

utilizes the “ON” & “OFF” states of electric
switches. (current & no current states) 71
 Data Representation Method
 An electronic devices has similarity with the
binary number system in that both represent only
two elementary states.
 Therefore binary number system is a convenient

way to represent data in a computer system.

 An “ON” corresponds to a 1 and “OFF”

corresponds to a 0.
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the

existence of a current and “OFF” is represented

by non existence of current.
 On a magnetic disk, the same information is

stored by changing the polarity on the disk’s

surface. of magnetized particles 72
 Units of Data Representation
 Their is a Unit for the data to store, process or
communicate with in the computer system.
 The units from the smallest to the largest are
called bit, byte and word.
 This units are based on the binary number system.
Bit
 Bit stands for binary digits.
 Bits are the smallest units and can convey only
two possible states 0 or 1.
 A bit is a single element in the computer, on a disk
that stands for either “ON” indicating 1 or “OFF”
indicating 0.
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 Unit of Data Representation
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the
existence of current and “OFF” is represented by
the non-existence of current. On a magnetic disk,
the same information is stored by changing the
polarity or magnetized particles on the disk’s
surface.
Byte
 It is a group of bits used to represent a symbol.
 It is the “basic unit of data representation” in the
computer system.
 The term byte is commonly used to mean an 8 bit
byte.
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 Unit of Data Representation
 Since each bit has two states and there are 8 bits
in a byte, the total amount of data that can be
represented is 28 or 256 possible combinations.
 Each byte can represent a character. (a character

is either a letter, a number or a special symbol

such as +,-,?,*,blank space, $, etc.)
 A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in

the computer memory, processing unit, external

storage and during communication.

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 Unit of Data Representation
 If the computer memory is 524288 byte, this is
expressed in short by saying 512KB, where KB
stands for kilobyte.
1 Kilobyte (1KB) is 210 or 1024 bytes.
1 Megabyte (MB) is 220 bytes or 210 kilobytes.
1 Gigabyte (GB) is 230 bytes or 220 kilobytes.
Word
 A combination of bytes, then form a “word”.
 Word refers the number of bits that a computer
process at a time or a transmission media
transmits at a time.

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 Unit of Data Representation
 Although bytes can store or transmit information,
the process can even be faster if more than one
byte is processed at a once;
 A word can contain one, two, three or four bytes
based on the capacity of the computer.
 Word length is usually given in bits.
 We say that a computer is an 8-bits, a 16 bit, a 32
bit or a 64 bit computer to indicate that the amount
of data it can process at a time.
 When the word length is larger a computer will
became more powerful and faster.

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What is Numbering System?

Numbering System (NS) is the way of representing

numbers in different forms. There are different numbering
systems. Some of the numbering system are:
 Binary ( 0,1) _____base 2
 Octal (0,7)_________base 8
Decimal (0,9)________base 10 and
Hexadecimal (0-9 ,A-F)_____base 16

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What is Numbering System?

Conversion of numbering system

 Group discussion with highlight lecture
Example :
Convert 20 to the following numbering system
a)Binary
b)Octal
c)Hexadecimal
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CHAPTER
four

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 Data communication And Networking

Communication
 It is a process of transferring ideas,
information and message b/n entities.
 We do have three kinds of communication

These are: 1. Human to human

2. Human to
computer
3. computer to
computer

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 Communication channel

There are three types of communication

channels. They are:
a. Simplex
b. Half-duplex
c. full-duplex

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There are three basic elements of communication
1. source(Sender):a device to send data.
2. Media(channel): a communication medium over
which data is sent.
3. Destination(receiver):
sender Encoder
a device to
Transmission receiveDestination
Decoder
the sent
/channel
data.

There are two types of transmission

Analog Transmission:-continuous sine wave.
Digital transmission:- discrete/discontinuous on
& off electronic pulses. 83
 Data Transmission
It is digital computer communication with digital
signal.(the “on” pulse is represented as 1 bit and
the “off” pulse is represented as o bit)
Data is transmitted as a series of character or block
of character.(asynchronous & Synchronous)
Modes of Data Transmission
Their are three types of communication channels/
modes of communication.
a. Simplex
b. Half-duplex
c. full-duplex
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 A. Simplex: It is takes place in only one
direction.
E.g. Radio, TV broadcasting.
 The device at either end is ether send only
Sender or
Receiver
receive only.
B. Half-Duplex: it is a transmission of data in both
direction but only in one direction at a time.
This is a good for transmissions in which case
the receiver has to acknowledge that it has
received the message Senderback to the sender.
Receiver

E.g. A talk-back radio

C. Full-Duplex: it allow transmission of data both
direction simultaneously. E.g. Mobile, telephone
Sender Receiver

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 Fundamentals of Computer Networking

What is networking?
A computer network is a collection of
computers and other devices that
communicate to share data, hardware,
software, and other resources.
Benefits of Network Computing
 Sharing Information (Or Data)
 Sharing Hardware(Peripheral Devices)
 Sharing Programs/Software
 Centralizing Administration And Support
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 Based on geographical
1. Local Area Network(LAN):
 Limited geographical area less than two kilometers.
 Inexpensive transition media(coaxial or twisted pairs)
 Good for resource sharing.

E.g. University campus, office, school or a building.

2. Metropolitan Area Network(MAN):
 It covers larger geographical areas such as cities or school
districts.
 Multi-campuses of the university can link their LAN in the
various campuses together to form MAN..
3. Wide Area Network(WAN):
 It covers wider geographical area
 Communication is established through telephone lines,
microwave links, fiber optics or satellite links.
 Interconnection b/n one country to other country.

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88
89
 Common uses of the Internet
E-mail
 The concept of sending electronic text
messages between parties.
World wide web (WWW)
 Usually called Web.
 Globally connected network contains a number
of interactive web pages.
 Through keyword-driven Internet search using
search engines, like Google, millions of web
pages have easy & instant access to a vast and
diverse amount of online information.
USENET
 It is an electronic discussion forum. 90
 Remote access
 The Internet allows computer users to connect
to other computers and information stores
easily, wherever they may be across the world.
 They may do this with or without the use of
security, authentication and encryption
technologies, depending on the requirements.
File transfer protocol (FTP)
 It
helps to transfer files and programs from
one system to another.
 Using FTP programs we can upload or
download files. But to do this there should
be an admission from the remote computer.
91
 File sharing
A computer file can be E-mailed to customers,
colleagues and friends as an attachment.
 It can be uploaded to a Web site, FTP server or
Shared location for easily download by the
others.
Video Conferencing
 Video conferencing means making a
conference on the Internet by individuals who
live in different locations.
 This takes place at the same time in different
location.
 It is similar to conference in a hall except they
are at distant.
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 Search Engine (E.g. Yahoo, Google… )
It is an information retrieval system designed
to help find information stored on different
computer through the World Wide Web.
 The search engine allows one to ask for

content meeting specific criteria.

E-commerce
 It is a large Internet marketing.
 some of the biggest companies today have

grown by taking advantage of the efficient

nature of low-cost advertising and commerce
through the Internet.

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 Chapter 5

Introduction to computer security

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 Chapter 5
 Computer security is a branch of computer technology known as
information security as applied to computers and networks.

 It is the concept of attaining a secure computing environment (i.e., an

ideal state free from risk or danger) by detecting the vulnerabilities
associated with computer use.

 It is a general term relating to measures designed to protect computer

assets in all configurations.

 The protection of information assets can be handled using technology,

processes and training.

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 Chapter 5
 Computer Information and Data Security
 It is important to avoid data and information loss in case of hard disk
crashes.

 The only solution is to regularly keep backups of all the data on other
media such as magnetic tapes, CD-ROM, etc.

 It is a good practice to store the media off-site and in case of a disk

crash, restore the information from the backup media onto the new
disk.

96
 Chapter 5
 Computer Information and Data Security
 In case a backup media is not affordable, one should try and store the
files on at least two different media devices.

 These media devices should be systematically kept at a place which is

safe and secured, as the information contained may be confidential.

 People usually backup database files, spreadsheet files and large

documents.

 As the technical constraints are always there, it is better to take

regular backups, in order to avoid any loss of information.
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 Chapter 5
 Computer security is a technical developed to protect single
computers and Network- Lined computer system from accidental or
intentional harm including destruction of computer hue & sue.
 One of the causes of disaster on a computer system is computer
virus. There are different types of security methods. Some of which
are as follows:-
1)Disaster Recovery Plans: It is Periodical testing and upgrading of
the contents of the computer. It helps to safe guard documents from
sudden damage.
2)Application Safeguards: Protecting the computer itself and the
document within the system from internal and external damage. 98
 Chapter 5
3) Intrusion Selection Systems: it Security software called intrusion detection
systems may be used in computers to detect unusual and suspicious activity and, in
some cases, stop a variety of harmful actions by authorized or unauthorized persons.

 Abuse and misuse of sensitive system and application programs and data such as
password, inventory, financial, engineering, and personnel files can be detected by
these systems

4)Firewalls: Software placed between the networked computers and protects the
networked computers. The firewall examines, filters, and reports on all information
passing through the network to ensure its appropriateness.

5)Passwords

6)Backup

7)Encryption
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 Chapter 5
 Computer system security threats
 A computer system can be exposed to risk of security threats. These
security threats can be of different types.
 The following are the major threats which can disrupt security in a
computer system.
 Trojan Horse
 Viruses
 Worms
 Trojan Ho

10
0
 Computer Virus

 It is a computer program that can copy itself

and infect a computer without permission or
knowledge of the user.
 They are deliberately created by programmers,

or by people who use virus creation software.

 A virus can only spread from one computer to

another when:-
A user sends it over the network,
A user carry it on a removable medium
such as a floppy disk, CD, or USB drive.
 viruses can spread to other computers by
10
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10
2
 Virus prevention
 Purchase an anti virus program that runs as
you boot or work your computer and update it
frequently.
 Execute only programs of which you are

familiar as to their origin.

 Load only software from original disks or CD’s.

Pirated or Copied software is always a risk for

a virus.
 Programs sent by email should always be

suspicious.

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3
 Virus removal
 One possibility on Windows XP is a tool
known as System Restore, which restores
the registry and critical system files to a
previous checkpoint.
 There are so many anti-virus software in

the computer market that we can use to

remove virus from an infected file.
MacAfee, Dr. Solomon, Norton etc
 Operating system re-installation.

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4
 Backup
 In information technology, a backup or the process of backing up refers to
making copies of data so that these additional copies may be used to restore
the original after a data loss event.
 These additional copies are typically called "backups." The verb is back up
in two words, whereas the noun is backup (often used like an adjective in
compound nouns).
 Backups are useful primarily for two purposes. The first is to restore a state
following a disaster (called disaster recovery).
 The second is to restore small numbers of files after they have been
accidentally deleted or corrupted. Data loss is also very common. 66% of
internet users have suffered from serious data loss.
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5
 Backup
 In information technology, a backup or the process of backing up refers to
making copies of data so that these additional copies may be used to restore
the original after a data loss event.
 These additional copies are typically called "backups." The verb is back up
in two words, whereas the noun is backup (often used like an adjective in
compound nouns).
 Backups are useful primarily for two purposes. The first is to restore a state
following a disaster (called disaster recovery).
 The second is to restore small numbers of files after they have been
accidentally deleted or corrupted. Data loss is also very common. 66% of
internet users have suffered from serious data loss.
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6
 Encryption
 a process of converting messages or data into a form that
cannot be read without decrypting or deciphering it.
 The root of the word encryption—crypt—comes from the
Greek word kryptos, meaning “hidden” or “secret.”

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Thank you !

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