Algebraic Structure in Discrete Mathematics

• The algebraic structure is a type of non-empty set G

which is equipped with one or more than one binary
operation.
• Let us assume that * describes the binary operation
on non-empty set G.
• In this case, (G, *) will be known as the algebraic
structure.
• (1, -), (1, +), (N, *) all are algebraic structures.
• (R, +, .) is a type of algebraic structure, which is
equipped with two operations (+ and .)
 Binary Operation of Set

• In the binary operation, binary stands for two. A binary operation is a

type of operation that needs two inputs, which are known as the
operands.
• When we perform multiplication, division, addition, or subtraction
operations on two numbers, then we will get a number.
• The two elements of a set are associated with binary operations. The
result of these two elements will also be in the same set.
• So we can say that if we perform a binary operation on a set, then it
will perform calculations that combine two elements of the set and
generate another element that belongs to the same set.
• Let us assume that there is a non-empty set called G. A function f from
G × G to G is known as the binary operation on G.
• So f: G × G → G defines a binary operation on G.
 Examples of Binary operation

• In this example, we will take the two natural numbers or two real
numbers and perform binary operations such as addition,
multiplication, subtraction, and division on these numbers.
• The algebraic operation on two natural numbers or real numbers
will generate a result. If we get a natural number or real number
as a result, then we will consider that binary operation in our set.
• Addition:
• We will learn about addition, which is a binary operation.
Suppose we have two natural numbers(a, b). Now if we add
these numbers, then it will generate a natural number as a
result. For example: Suppose there are 6 and 8 two natural
numbers and the addition of these numbers are
• 6 + 8 = 14
• Hence, the result 14 is also a natural number.
So, we will consider an addition in our set. The
same process will be followed for real
numbers as well.
• +: N + N → N is derived by (a, b) → a + b
+: R + R → R is derived by (a, b) → a + b
• Multiplication:
• Now we will learn multiplication, which is a
binary operation. If we multiply two natural
numbers (a, b), then it will generate a natural
number as a result. For example: Suppose
there are 10 and 5 two natural numbers and
the multiplication of these numbers are:
• 10 * 5 = 50
• Hence, the result 50 is also a natural number.
So we will consider multiplication in our set.
The same process will be followed for real
numbers as well.
• +: N × N → N is derived by (a, b) → a × b
+: R × R → R is derived by (a, b) → a × b
• Subtraction:
• Now we will learn subtraction, which is a binary
operation. If we subtract two real numbers (a, b), then it
will also generate a real number as a result. The same
process will not be followed for natural numbers,
because if we take two natural numbers to perform
binary subtraction, then it is not compulsory that it will
generate a natural number. For example: Suppose we
take two natural numbers 5 and 7 and the subtraction of
these numbers are
• 5 - 7 = -2
• Hence, the result is not a natural number. So
we will not consider subtraction in our set.
• - : R x R → R is derived by (a, b)→ a - b
• Division
• Now we will learn division, which is a binary operation. If we
divide two real numbers (a, b), then it will also generate a real
number as a result. The same process will not be followed for
natural numbers, because if we take two natural numbers to
perform binary division, then it is not compulsory that it will
generate a natural number. For example: Suppose we take two
natural numbers 10 and 6 and the division of these numbers is
• 10/6 = 5/3
• Hence, the result 5/3 is not a natural number. So we will not
consider division in our set.
• - : R - R → R is derived by (x, y) → x - y
 Properties of Algebraic structure
• Commutative: Suppose set G contains a
binary operation *. The operation * is called to
be commutative in G if it holds the following
relation:
• x * y= y * x for all x, y in G
• Associative: Suppose set G contains a binary
operation *. The operation * is called to be
associative in G if it holds the following
relation:
• (x*y)*z = x *( y*z) for all x, y, z in G
• Identity: Suppose we have an algebraic system
(G, *) and set G contains an element e. That
element will be called an identifying element
of the set if it contains the following relation:
• x * e = e * x = x for all x
• Here, element e can be referred to as an
identity element of G, and we can also see
that it is necessarily unique.
• Inverse: Suppose there is an algebraic system (G, *),
and it contains an identity e. We will also assume that
the set G contains the elements x and y. The element
y will be called an inverse of x if it satisfies the
following relation:
• x*y=y*x=e
• Here, element x can also be referred to as inverse of
y, and we can also see that it is necessarily unique.
The inverse of x can also be referred to as x-1 like this:
• x * x-1 = x-1 * x = e
• Cancellation Law: Suppose set G contains a
binary operation *. The operation * is called to
be left cancellation law in G if it holds the
following relation:
• x * y = x * z implies y = z
• It will be called the right cancellation law if it
holds the following relation:
• y * x = z * x implies y = z
 Types of Algebraic structure

• There are various types of algebraic structure,

which is described as follows:
• Semigroup
• Monoid
• Group
• Abelian Group
• All these algebraic structures have wide
application in particular to binary coding and in
many other disciplines.
 Monoid:

• A monoid is a semigroup, but it contains an extra identity

element (E or e). An algebraic structure (G, *) will be
known as a monoid if it satisfies the following condition:
• Closure: G is closed under operation * that means (a*b)
belongs to set G for all a, b ∈
• Associative: Operation * shows an association operation
between a, b, and c that means a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c for all
a, b, c in G.
• Identity Element: There must be an identity in set G that
means a * e = e * a = a for all x.
• Example 1:In this example, we will take (Set of
integers, *), (Set of natural numbers, +), and (Set of
whole numbers, +). Where
• Monoid is shown by (Set of Integers, *) because 1 is
an integer and it is also an identity element.
• Monoid is not shown by (Set of natural numbers, +)
because there is not an identity element, but it is a
semigroup.
• Monoid is shown by (Set of whole numbers, +)
because it contains 0 as the identity element.
 Example 2:

• The monoid contains a set of positive integers with additional or

multiplication operations except zero. For example: Suppose we have a
set G, which contains some positive integers like 1, 2, 3, and so on like
this:
• G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …..}
• This set contains the closure property because according to closure
property (a * b) belongs to G for every element a, b. So in this set, (1*2)
= 2 and so on.
• This set contains the associative property because according to
associative property (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) belongs to G for every
element a, b, c. So in this set, (1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3) = 5, and so on.
• This set also contains the identity property because according to this
property a * e = e * a = a, where a ∈ So in this set, (2 × 1) = 2, (3 × 1) = 3,
and so on. In our case, 1 is the identity element.
 Group:

• A Group is a monoid, but it contains an extra inverse element,

which is denoted by 1. An algebraic structure (G, *) will be known as
a group if it satisfies the following condition:
• Closure: G is closed under operation * that means (a*b) belongs to
set G for all a, b ∈
• Associative: * shows an association operation between a, b, and c
that means a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c for all a, b, c in G.
• Identity Element: There must be an identity in set G that means a *
e = e * a = a for all a.
• Inverse Element: It contains an inverse element that means a * a-1=
a-1 * a = e for a ∈
• Note: An algebraic structure, semigroup, and monoid are always
shown by a Group.
• Example 1:
• The examples of group are Matrix multiplication and (Z, +).
• Example 2:
• In this example, we will use the matrix multiplication operation on the set of
non-singular matrices N × N from a group.
• If we perform multiplication of non-singular matrices N × N, then it will also
be a non-singular matrix N × N, which holds the property of closure.
• Matrix multiplication itself holds the property of association. So it is also
associative.
• The identity matrix is contained in the set of non-singular matrices N × N,
which holds the property of identity element.
• As we have seen that all the matrices are non-singular. So they will contain
the inverse elements, which will be also non-singular matrices. Hence, it
also holds the property of inverse.
 Abelian Group

• An abelian group is a group, but it contains commutative law. An algebraic

structure (G, *) will be known as an abelian group if it satisfies the following
condition:
• Closure: G is closed under operation * that means (a*b) belongs to set G for all
a, b ∈
• Associative: * shows an association operation between a, b, and c that means
a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c for all a, b, c in G.
• Identity Element: There must be an identity in set G that means a * e = e * a = a
for all a.
• Inverse Element: It contains an inverse element that means a * a-1= a-1 * a = e for
a∈
• Commutative Law: There will be a commutative law such that a * b = b * a such
that a, b belongs to G.
• Note: (Z, +) is an Abelian group because it is commutative, but matrix
multiplication is not commutative that's why it is not an abelian group.
• Example: Suppose we have a set G, which contains some positive integers
except zero such as 1, 2, 3, and so on with additional operations like this:
• G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …..}
• This set contains the closure property because according to closure property
(a + b) belongs to G for every element a, b. So in this set, (1 + 2) = 2 ∈ G and
so on.
• This set also contains the associative property because according to
associative property (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) belongs to G for every element a,
b, c. So in this set, (1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3) = 6 ∈ G and so on.
• This set also contains the identity property because according to this property
(a * e) = a, where a ∈ So in this set, (2 × 1) = 2, (3 × 1) = 3, and so on. In our
case, 1 is the identity element.
• This set also contains the commutative property because according to this
property (a * b) = (b * a), where a, b ∈ So in this set, (2 × 3) = (3 × 2) = 6 and
so on.
 Semi Group

• Suppose there is an algebraic structure (G, *), which will be

known as semigroup if it satisfies the following condition:
• Closure: The operation * is a closed operation on G that
means (a*b) belongs to set G for all a, b ∈ G
• Associative: The operation * shows an association operation
between a, b, and c that means a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c for all a, b,
c in G.
• Note: An algebraic structure is always shown by semigroup.
• Example 1:
• The examples of semigroup are (Matrix, *) and (Set of
integer, +).
• Example 2:
• The semigroup contains a set of positive integers with an additional
or multiplication operation. The positive integers will not contain
zero. For example: Suppose we have a set G, which contains some
positive integers except zero such as 1, 2, 3, and so on like this:
• G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …..}
• This set contains the closure property because according to closure
property (a * b) belongs to G for every element a, b. So in this set,
(1*2) = 2 ∈
• This set also contains the associative property because according to
associative property (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) belongs to G for every
element a, b, c. So in this set, (1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3) = 6 ∈
 Binary Operation
• Consider a non-empty set A and α function f:
AxA→A is called a binary operation on A.
• If * is a binary operation on A, then it may be
written as a*b.
• A binary operation can be denoted by any of
the symbols +,-,*,⨁,△,⊡,∨,∧ etc.
• The value of the binary operation is denoted by
placing the operator between the two
operands.
 Example

• The operation of addition is a binary operation on the set of

natural numbers.
• The operation of subtraction is a binary operation on the set of
integers. But, the operation of subtraction is not a binary
operation on the set of natural numbers because the subtraction
of two natural numbers may or may not be a natural number.
• The operation of multiplication is a binary operation on the set
of natural numbers, set of integers and set of complex numbers.
• The operation of the set union is a binary operation on the set of
subsets of a Universal set. Similarly, the operation of set
intersection is a binary operation on the set of subsets of a
universal set.
 N-ARY Operation
• A function f: AxAx.............A→A is called an
n-ary operation.
 Tables of Operation:

• Consider a non-empty finite set

A= {a1,a2,a3,....an}. A binary operation * on A can
be described by means of table as shown in fig:
* a1 a2 a3 an
a1 a1*a1
a2 a2*a2
a3 a3*a3

an an*an
• The empty in the jth row and the kth column
represent the elements aj*ak.
• Example: Consider the set A = {1, 2, 3} and a
binary operation * on the set A defined by a *
b = 2a+2b.
• Represent operation * as a table on A.
• Solution: The table of the operation is shown
in fig:
* 1 2 3
1 4 6 8
2 6 8 10
3 8 10 12
 Properties of Binary Operations

• There are many properties of the binary operations

which are as follows:
• 1. Closure Property: Consider a non-empty set A
and a binary operation * on A. Then is closed under
the operation *, if a * b ∈ A, where a and b are
elements of A.
• Example1: The operation of addition on the set of
integers is a closed operation.
• Example2: Consider the set A = {-1, 0, 1}.
Determine whether A is closed under
• Addition
• Multiplication
• Solution:
• (i)The sum of elements is (-1) + (-1) = -2 and 1+1=2 does not
belong to A. Hence A is not closed under addition.
• (ii) The multiplication of every two elements of the set are
• -1 * 0 = 0; -1 * 1 =-1; -1 * -1 = 1
0 * -1 = 0; 0 * 1 = 0; 0 * 0 = 0
1 * -1 = -1; 1 * 0 = 0; 1 * 1 = 1
• Since, each multiplication belongs to A hence A is closed
under multiplication.
2. Associative Property: Consider a non-empty
set A and a binary operation * on A. Then the
operation * on A is associative, if for every a, b,
c, ∈ A, we have (a * b) * c = a* (b*c).
• Example: Consider the binary operation * on
Q, the set of rational numbers, defined by
• a * b = a + b - ab ∀ a, b ∈ Q.
• Determine whether * is associative.
• Solution: Let us assume some elements a, b, c ∈ Q,
then the definition
• (a*b) * c = (a + b- ab) * c = (a + b- ab) + c - (a
+ b- ab)c
= a + b- ab + c - ca -bc + abc = a + b + c -
ab - ac -bc + abc.
• Similarly, we have
a * (b * c) = a + b + c - ab - ac -bc + abc
• Therefore, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
• Hence, * is associative.
• 3. Commutative Property: Consider a non-
empty set A,and a binary operation * on A.
Then the operation * on A is associative, if for
every a, b, ∈ A, we have a * b = b * a.
• Example: Consider the binary operation * on
Q, the set of rational numbers, defined by a *
b = a2+b2 ∀ a,b∈Q.
• Determine whether * is commutative.
• Solution: Let us assume some elements a, b, ∈ Q, then
definition
• a * b = a2+b2=b * a
• Hence, * is commutative.
• 4. Identity: Consider a non-empty set A, and a binary
operation * on A. Then the operation * has an identity
property if there exists an element e in A such that a * e
(right identity) = e * a (left identity) = a ∀ a ∈ A.
• Example: Consider the binary operation * on I +, the set of
positive integers defined by a * b =
• Determine the identity for the binary operation *, if exists.
• Solution: Let us assume that e be a +ve integer
number, then
• e * a, a ∈ I+
= a, e = 2...............equation (i)
• Similarly, a * e = a, a ∈ I+
=2 or e=2...........equation (ii)
• From equation (i) and (ii) for e = 2, we have e * a
=a*e=a
• Therefore, 2 is the identity elements for *.
• 5. Inverse: Consider a non-empty set A, and a
binary operation * on A. Then the operation is the
inverse property, if for each a ∈A,,there exists an
element b in A such that a * b (right inverse) = b *
a (left inverse) = e, where b is called an inverse of
a.
• 6. Idempotent: Consider a non-empty set A, and a
binary operation * on A. Then the operation * has
the idempotent property, if for each a ∈A, we
have a * a = a ∀ a ∈A
• 7. Distributivity: Consider a non-empty set A, and a binary
operation * on A. Then the operation * distributes over +, if
for every a, b, c ∈A, we have
a * (b + c) = (a * b) + (a * c) [left
distributivity]
(b + c) * a = (b * a) + (c * a) [right
distributivity]
• 8. Cancellation: Consider a non-empty set A, and a binary
operation * on A. Then the operation * has the cancellation
property, if for every a, b, c ∈A,we have
a*b=a*c⇒b=c [left cancellation]
b*a=c*a⇒b=c [Right cancellation]
SemiGroup
 SemiGroup

• Let us consider, an algebraic system (A, *), where * is a binary

operation on A. Then, the system (A, *) is said to be semi-group if it
satisfies the following properties:
• The operation * is a closed operation on set A.
• The operation * is an associative operation.
• Example: Consider an algebraic system (A, *), where A = {1, 3, 5, 7,
9....}, the set of positive odd integers and * is a binary operation
means multiplication. Determine whether (A, *) is a semi-group.
• Solution: Closure Property: The operation * is a closed operation
because multiplication of two +ve odd integers is a +ve odd number.
• Associative Property: The operation * is an associative operation on
set A. Since every a, b, c ∈ A, we have
• (a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
• Hence, the algebraic system (A, *), is a semigroup.
• Subsemigroup:
• Consider a semigroup (A, *) and let B ⊆ A. Then the
system (B, *) is called a subsemigroup if the set B is
closed under the operation *.
• Example: Consider a semigroup (N, +), where N is the
set of all natural numbers and + is an addition
operation. The algebraic system (E, +) is a subsemigroup
of (N, +), where E is a set of +ve even integers.
 Free Semigroup:

• Consider a non empty set A = {a1,a2,.....an}.

• Now, A* is the set of all finite sequences of
elements of A, i.e., A* consist of all words that
can be formed from the alphabet of A.
• If α,β,and,γ are any elements of A*, then α,(β. γ)=( α.β).γ.
• Here ° is a concatenation operation, which is an associative operation as shown above.
• Thus (A*,°) is a semigroup. This semigroup (A*,°) is called the free semigroup generated by set A.
• Product of Semigroup:
• Theorem: If (S1,*)and (S2,*) are semigroups, then (S1 x S2*) is a semigroup, where * defined by
(s1',s2')*( s1'',s2'')=(s1'*s1'',s2'*s2'' ).
• Proof: The semigroup S1 x S2 is closed under the operation *.
• Associativity of *.Let a, b, c ∈ S1 x S2
• So, a * (b * c) = (a1,a2 )*((b1,b2)*(c1,c2))
= (a1,a2 )*(b1 *1 c1,b2 *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 (b1 *1 c1 ),a2 *2 (b2 *2 c2)
= ((a1 *1 b1) *1*1,( a2 *2 b2) *2 c2)
= (a1 *1 b1,a2 *2 b2)*( c1,c2)
= ((a1,a2)*( b1,b2))*( c1,c2)
= (a * b) * c.
• Since * is closed and associative. Hence, S 1 x S2 is a semigroup.
 Monoid:

• Let us consider an algebraic system (A, o), where o is a

binary operation on A. Then the system (A, o) is said to
be a monoid if it satisfies the following properties:
• The operation o is a closed operation on set A.
• The operation o is an associative operation.
• There exists an identity element, i.e., the operation o.
• Example: Consider an algebraic system (N, +), where
the set N = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4...}.The set of natural numbers
and + is an addition operation. Determine whether (N,
+) is a monoid.
• Solution: (a) Closure Property: The operation + is
closed since the sum of two natural numbers.
• (b)Associative Property: The operation + is an
associative property since we have (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)
∀ a, b, c ∈ N.
• (c)Identity: There exists an identity element in set N
the operation +. The element 0 is an identity
element, i.e., the operation +. Since the operation +
is a closed, associative and there exists an identity.
Hence, the algebraic system (N, +) is a monoid.
 SubMonoid:
• Let us consider a monoid (M, o), also let S ⊆M. Then
(S, o) is called a submonoid of (M, o), if and only if it
satisfies the following properties:
• S is closed under the operation o.
• There exists an identity element e ∈ T.
• Example: Let us consider, a monoid (M, *), where * s
a binary operation and M is a set of all integers. Then
(M1, *) is a submonoid of (M, *) where M1 is defined
as M1={ai│i is from 0 to n,a positive integer,and
a∈M}.
 Group:

• Let G be a non-void set with a binary operation * that

assigns to each ordered pair (a, b) of elements of G an
element of G denoted by a * b. We say that G is a group
under the binary operation * if the following three
properties are satisfied:
• 1) Associativity: The binary operation * is associative i.e.
a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c , ∀ a,b,c ∈ G
• 2) Identity: There is an element e, called the identity, in G,
such that a*e=e*a=a, ∀ a ∈ G
• 3) Inverse: For each element a in G, there is an element b
in G, called an inverse of a such that a*b=b*a=e, ∀ a, b ∈ G
 Properties of Groups

• The following theorems can understand the

elementary features of Groups:
• Theorem1:-
• 1. Statement: - In a Group G, there is only one
identity element (uniqueness of identity)
Proof: - let e and e' are two identities in G and
let a ∈ G
• ∴ ae = a ⟶(i)
∴ ae' = a ⟶(ii)
• R.H.S of (i) and (ii) are equal ⇒ae =ae'
• Thus by the left cancellation law, we obtain e=
e'
• There is only one identity element in G for any
a ∈ G. Hence the theorem is proved.
• 2. Statement: - For each element a in a group G, there is a
unique element b in G such that ab= ba=e (uniqueness if
inverses)
• Proof: - let b and c are both inverses of a a∈ G
• Then ab = e and ac = e
∵ c = ce {existence of identity element}
⟹ c = c (ab) {∵ ab = e}
⟹ c = (c a) b
⟹ c = (ac) b { ∵ ac = ca}
⟹ c = eb
⟹ c = b { ∵ b = eb}
• Hence inverse of a G is unique.
• Theorem 2:-
• 1. Statement: - In a Group G,(a-1)-1=a,∀ a∈ G
• Proof: We have a a-1=a-1 a=e
• Where e is the identity element of G
• Thus a is inverse of a-1∈ G
• i.e., (a-1)-1=a,∀ a∈ G
• 2. Statement: In a Group G,(a b-1)=b-1 a-1,∀
a,b∈ G
• Proof: - By associatively we have
• (b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 (a-1 a)b
⟹(b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 (e)b {∵a-1 a=e}
⟹(b-1 a-1)ab=b-1 b {∵eb=b}
⟹(b-1 a-1)ab=e, {∵b-1 b=e}
• Similarly
• (ab) (b-1 a-1)=a(b b-1) a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a (e) a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=a a-1
⟹(ab) (b-1 a-1)=e {∵aa-1=e}
Thus ( b-1 a-1)ab=(ab)(b-1 a-1)=e
∴ b-1 a-1 is the inverse of ab
i.e., b-1 a-1= a b-1
• Hence the theorem is proved.
• Theorem3:-
• In a group G, the left and right cancellation laws hold i.e.
• (i) ab = ac implies b=c
• (ii) ba=ca implies b=c
• Proof
• (i) Let ab=ac
Premultiplying a-1 on both sides we get
a-1 (ab)=a-1 (ac)
⟹ (a-1a) b=(a-1 a)c
⟹eb=ec
⟹b=c
• Hence Proved.
• (ii) Let ba=ca
Post-multiplying a-1 on both sides
⟹(ba) a-1=(ca) a-1
⟹b(aa-1 )=c(aa-1 )
⟹be=ce
⟹b=c
• Hence the theorem is proved.
 Finite and Infinite Group
• A group (G, *) is called a finite group if G is a
finite set.
• A group (G, *) is called a infinite group if G is an
infinite set.
• Example1: The group (I, +) is an infinite group
as the set I of integers is an infinite set.
• Example2: The group G = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
under multiplication modulo 8 is a finite group
as the set G is a finite set.
 Order of Group

• The order of the group G is the number of

elements in the group G. It is denoted by |G|.
A group of order 1 has only the identity
element, i.e., ({e} *).
• A group of order 2 has two elements, i.e., one
identity element and one some other
element.
• Example1: Let ({e, x}, *) be a group of order 2.
The table of operation is shown in fig:
• Example1: Let ({e, x}, *) be a group of order 2.
The table of operation is shown in fig:
* e x
e e x
x x e