Introduction to Mathematical System

Lesson Objective: Define and apply the concepts of mathematical system such as semigroup,
group, ring, and field.

Introduction
In the realm of mathematics, abstract structures provide a profound way to understand and
manipulate the properties of numbers and operations. These structures, known as algebraic
systems, form the backbone of many areas of mathematics and have significant applications in
various fields such as physics, computer science, engineering, and cryptography. This module
focuses on four fundamental algebraic systems: semigroups, groups, rings, and fields. Each of
these systems has unique properties and operations that make them powerful tools for solving a
wide range of mathematical problems.

Groups

1.1. Definition. A group is a set 𝐺 equipped with a binary operation ∗ that satisfies the associative,
identity, and inverse properties.
Note: Some texts define binary operation as something which has closure property. In that case, the first property is
redundant. For the sake of brevity, it is sometimes easier to write xy instead of x ∗ y.
Sometime we denote a group by its set and the operation, e.g., (Z,+) is the group of integers under addition.

1.2. Properties.

1. Associativity: For all a, b, c ∈ G, we have a ∗ (b ∗ c) = (a ∗ b) ∗ c. This property ensures

that the way in which elements are grouped in operations does not affect the result.

2. Identity: There is an element identity (e) in G, such that, a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a for all a ∈ G. This
means there is a neutral element in the group that leaves other elements unchanged when combined
with them.
3. Inverse: For all a ∈ G, there exist a−1 ∈ G, such that, a ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ a = e. This denotes
that every element in the group can be "reversed" to yield the identity element.

1.3. Example. Let * be defined on Q+ by a * b=ab/2. Determine Q+ under such a binary operation *
is a group.
It is a group since it satisfies the three properties of a group:
(1) (a * b) * c= (ab/2) * c=(abc)/4, and a * (b * c) = a * (bc/2) = (abc)/4. Thus * is associative.
(2) a * e=ae/2=a implies e=2. We have 2 *a=a *2=a for all a  Q+. So, 2 is an identity element
for *.
(3) a * a’=aa’/2=e=2 implies a’=4/a. We have a * 4/a=4/a * a=2. So, a’=4/a is an inverse for a.
Hence Q+ with the operation * is a group.
 Homomorphism

2.1. Definition. A homomorphism is a structure-preserving map between two algebraic structures,

such as groups, that respects the operation defined on them.
Given two groups (G, *) and (H, *), a function ϕ: G→H is called a homomorphism if for all a, b
∈ G, Φ (a ⋅ b) = Φ (a) ∗ Φ (b).

2.2. Properties

1. Preservation of Identity: If e G is the identity in G and e H is the identity in H, then

∅ ( e G )=e H .
2. Preservation of Inverse: For every element a ∈G , ∅ ( a−1) =∅ ¿.

Z
2.3. Example. Consider the groups ¿ and ¿. Define the function ∅ :Z → by ∅ ( x )=x mod 2 .
Isomorphism 2Z

3.1. Definition.An isomorphismis a bijective homomorphism between two

algebraic structures, such as groups. Isomorphisms indicate that the two groups
have the same structure, even though their elements might differ.

Given two groups (G, ∗) and (𝐻, ∗) a function 𝜙: 𝐺 → 𝐻 𝜙: G →H is called an isomorphism if:
1. 𝜙 is a homomorphism.
2. 𝜙 is bijective (both injective and surjective).

3.3. Example. Consider the groups ¿. Define the function ∅ : R+¿→ ∅ ( x )=ln ( x ) ¿

1. Homomorphism: For a, b ∈ R +¿, ∅ (a∗b)=ln ( a∗b)=ln ( a)+ ln (b )¿

2. Bijective: The function ∅ is bijective because:

 Injective: If ∅ ( a ) =∅ ( b ) ,then ln ( a ) =ln ( b ) implies a=b

+¿ ¿
 Surjective: The function ∅ maps every element of R to a unique element of
R.
 Abelian

4.1. Definition. A group (G, ∗) is called abelian, or commutative, if it satisfies the

following additional property:

• Commutativity: for any a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = b ∗ a.

4.2. Examples:
1. The set Z+ under addition.
2. The set of all nonnegative integers under addition.
3. The set Z+ under multiplication.
4. The set Z, Q, R, and C under addition.
5. The sets Q+ and R+, Q*, R*, C* under multiplication.

Semigroup

4.1. Definition. A group (G, ∗) is called abelian, or commutative, if it satisfies the

following additional property:

• Commutativity: for any a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b = b ∗ a.

5.2. Properties

(S1: closure) For all elements g and h of S, g ∗ h is an element of S;

(S2: associativity) (g ∗ h) ∗ k = g ∗ (h ∗ k) for all g, h, k ∈ S. The semigroup (S, ∗) is said to be a

monoid if it satisfies an additional axiom:

(S3: existence of identity) there exists an element e ∈ such that e ∗ g = g ∗ e = g for all g ∈ S.
Additional useful properties of semigroups:

5.2. Examples
• Real numbers R with multiplication (commutative monoid).
• Positive integers with addition (commutative semigroup with cancellation).
• Positive integers with multiplication (commutative monoid with cancellation).
• Given a set X, all functions f : X → X with composition (monoid).
• All n×n matrices with multiplication (monoid).
 Short Activity/Reflection

The students will be asked about the importance of understanding

the properties of groups and how they can apply this knowledge
to their everyday lives.

Assessment
Instruction: Determine if the given sets form groups
1. Consider the set 2 (the set of even integers) under the operation addition. Determine if the set
forms group.

2. Determine if the set N (the set of natural numbers) forms group under the operation addition.

Ans.

1. 2 Z forms group
(1) Addition of integers is associative. For any a , b , c ∈2 Z , ( a+b ) +c=a+ ( b+C )
(2) For any a ∈ 2 Z , a+0=0+a=a .
(3) For any a ∈ 2 Z , there exist an inverse −a ∈ 2 Z such that a+ (−a )=0

2. N under addition does not form a group because it lacks an identity element and inverses within the set.
(1) Addition of natural numbers is associative. For any, a , b , c ∈ N , ( a+b ) +c=a+ ( b+c ) .

(2) The identity element for addition is 0. However, 0 is not included in N (assuming N is defined as the set of
positive integers).

(3) Natural numbers do not have additive inverses within N . For example, there is no natural number b such as that
1 + B = 0.

References
Fraleigh, J. B. (2013). A First Course in Abstract Algebra. Pearson.
Gallian, J. A. (2017). Contemporary Abstract Algebra. Cengage Learning.