pIT 104 Discrete Mathematics

Introduction to Number Theory

Number theory is a branch of pure mathematics that deals with the study of the integers,
particularly in the study of prime numbers as well as the properties of objects made from integers or
defined as generalizations of the integers. The term for number theory was formerly known as
arithmetic; in the early 20th century.
Number theory has grown in practical importance through its use in areas such as coding
theory, cryptography, and statistics. Number theory also played an important role in recreational
mathematics and the properties of numbers.

A. Types of Numbers
 Counting numbers ( N ) are positive whole numbers excluding zero or {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,...}
also called natural numbers.
 Whole numbers (W ) are positive integers including zero or {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…}.
 Integers ( Z ) are numbers formed by the natural numbers including 0 together with the
negatives of the non-zero natural numbers or {…, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3,…}.
 Rational numbers (Q ) are numbers that can be written as a fraction and whose
numerators and denominators are integers provided that the denominator is not equal to
0. It can also be written in decimal form as a terminating decimal or as an infinite
repeating decimal. Some examples of rational numbers are 1/2, 3/4, 11/7, and -6/13.
 Irrational numbers are numbers that can be written as a nonterminating and
nonrepeating decimal such as e , π , √ 2, √3 7.
 Real numbers ( R ) are numbers comprised of all rational and irrational numbers.
 The imaginary number is the square root of negative one. Any real number times i is
an imaginary number. Some examples are i ,4 i , -6.3 i
 Complex numbers are the combination of real numbers and imaginary numbers (non-
real numbers) some examples are √−1, √−2, 3i, and 1 + 4i.
 An odd number is a number when divided by 2 contains a remainder of 1.
Mathematically, n is odd if there exists a number k, such that n = 2k + 1 where k is an
integer.
 An even number is a number divisible by 2. Mathematically, n is even if there exists a
number k, such that n = 2k where k is an integer.
 A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that has no positive
divisor other than 1 and itself. Some examples are 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11.
 A composite number is a positive integer that has a positive divisor other than 1 or
itself. In other words, a composite number is any positive integer greater than 1 that is
not a prime number, some examples are 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, etc.
 A perfect number is a positive integer that is equal to the sum of its proper positive
divisors, that is, the sum of its positive divisors excluding the number itself. Some
examples are 6, 28, 496, 8128, and 33550336.

B. Some Terms on Proofs

 The rule of inference is a logical rule that is used to deduce one statement from others.
 Conjecture it's a proposition that is unproven but is thought to be true and has not been
disproven.
 Axiom (or postulate) it's a proposition that is not proven or demonstrated but
considered either to be self-evident. In other words, an axiom is a logical statement that
is assumed to be true.
  A theorem is a statement that can be demonstrated by accepted mathematical
operations and arguments. In general, a few theorems are an embodiment of some
general principle that makes them part of a larger theory.
 Lemma (or pre-theorem) is a short theorem used in proving a larger theorem or a
proven statement used as a steppingstone toward the proof of another statement.
 Corollary (or post-theorem) if an immediate consequence of a result already proved. It
easily states more complicated theorems in a language simpler to use and apply.
 The proof is a demonstration that if some fundamental statements (axiom) are
assumed to be true, then some mathematical statement is necessarily true. That is,
proof must demonstrate that a statement is true in all cases.

METHODS OF PROOF
A proof is a demonstration or argument, that shows answers to a doubt that a given assertion
is a logical consequence of some axioms and definitions. In any problem which requires a proof, the
solution will not be a short answer because certain rules must be followed, and certain basic
principles must be assumed. Most proofs simply involve showing that a certain definition is being
addressed.

A. Direct Proof
Direct proof is when the conclusion is established by logically combining the axioms,
definitions, and earlier theorems.

Example 1:
Prove that “there exists an integer x such that it can be written into two ways as a sum of two
prime numbers.”

Proof:
We let x = 10.
Since 10 = 5 + 5 and 10 = 3 + 7 and 3, 5, and 7 are prime numbers.
We have shown that 10 can be written in two ways as a sum of two prime numbers.
Thus, we can say that “∃x such that it can be written into two ways as a sum of two prime
numbers.”

Example 2:
Prove that “the sum of two even integers is always even.”

Proof:
Let x and y be two even integers. We can represent x = 2a and y = 2b for integers a and b.
Then the sum x + y = 2a + 2b = 2(a + b).
It is clear that x + y has a factor of 2.
Therefore, we can say that “the sum of any two even integers is even.”

B. Proof by Contrapositive
Proof by contrapositive (or proof by transposition) is an indirect proof that establishes the
conclusion “if p then q” by proving the equivalent contrapositive statement “if not q then not p”.

Example 1:
Prove that “If x2 is even, then x is even.”

Proof:
We are going to prove the proposition “If x2 is even, then x is even,” by letting x be an odd number
which is the opposite of even.
If x is odd, then x = 2k + 1 for any integer.
Thus x2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1, where (2k2 + 2k) is an integer.
Therefore, x2 is odd.
To verify the original proposition, x2 is even we must show that x is even. In our case, we have
proven that “If x were odd, then x2 would be odd, though it is supposed to be even.”

Example 2:
Show that “If x and y are two integers for which x + y is even, then x and y have the same parity.”

Proof:
The contrapositive of the given proposition is “If x and y are two integers with opposite parity, then
their sum must be odd.”
So we can assume that x and y have opposite parity. Since one of these integers is even and the
other odd, let’s say for example x is even and y is odd.
Thus, these are integers m and n for which x = 2m and y = 2n + 1.
Now then, we compute the sum x + y = 2m + 2n + 1 = 2(m + n) + 1, which is an odd integer by
definition.
In this case, we have proven that “If x and y are two integers for which x + y is even, then x and y
have the same parity.”
Note: Two integers are said to have the same parity if they are both odd or both even.

C. Proof of Contradiction
In proof by contradiction (also known as reduction ad absurdum, Latin for “by reduction to
the absurd”), it is shown that if some statements were true, a logical contradiction occurs, hence
the statement must be false.

Example 1:
Show that √ 2 is an irrational number.

Proof:
a
Suppose that √ 2 were a rational number, so by definition √ 2 = where a and b are non-zero
b
integers with a common factor.
Thus, b√ 2 = a. Squaring both sides yield 2b2 = a2.
Since 2 divides the left-hand side, it must also divide the right-hand side.
So we can write a = 2c, where c ∈ Z .
Substitution into the original equation yields 2b2 = (2c)2 = 4c2.
But then, by the same argument as before, 2 divides b2, so b must be even.
However, if a and b are both even, they share a factor, namely 2.
This contradicts our assumption, so we can conclude that √ 2 is an irrational number.

Example 2:
Show that log10 3 is not a rational number.

Proof:
a
Let log10 3 = where a and b are positive integers.
b
Then by definition of log, 10a/b = 3 so 10a = 3b.
This is impossible because every positive power of 10 is even and every positive power of 3 is
odd.
Thus this is a contradiction, so we can conclude that log10 3 is not a rational number.

D. Proof of Exhaustion
 Proof by exhaustion (or proof by cases) is a method of mathematical proof in which the
statement to be proved is split into a finite number of cases and each case is checked to see if the
proposition in question holds. A proof by exhaustion contains two stages: (i) a proof that the cases
are exhaustive; and (ii) a proof of each of the cases.

Example 1:
Let x be any integer. Then x2 + x is even.

Proof:
There are only two possible cases; if x is even and the other is if x is odd.
Then we will establish the setup for the proof-by-cases inference.
Case 1: If x is even, then x = 2n, for some integer n.
Hence, x2 + x = (2n)2 + 2n = 4n2 + 2n = 2(2n2 + n) which is even.
Case 2: If x is odd, then x = 2n + 1, for some n.
Hence, x2 + x = (2n + 1)2 + (2n + 1) = (4n2 + 4n + 1) + (2n + 1) = 4n2 + 6n + 2, which is
even.
Thus, we have shown that “in any integer x, then x2 + x is even.”

Example 2:
Show that p = n² + 2 is not a multiple of 4, where n is an integer, 2 ≤ n ≤ 7.

Proof:
Split the statement into a finite number of cases.

It is given that 2 ≤ n ≤ 7 and for each value of n, we need to check if p = n² + 2 is a multiple of 4 or

not.
We will have six cases. Let us prove each case one by one.
Case 1: n = 2
Substitute n = 2 in p = n² + 2 and check if the value obtained is a multiple of 4 or not.
p = (2)2 + 2 = 6
As 6 is not divisible by 4, we can conclude that p is not a multiple of 4.
Case 2: n = 3
Substitute n = 3 in p = n² + 2 and check if the value obtained is a multiple of 4 or not.
p = (3)2 + 2 = 11
As 11 is not divisible by 4, we can conclude that p is not a multiple of 4.
Case 3: n = 4
Substitute n = 4 in p = n² + 2 and check if the value obtained is a multiple of 4 or not.
p = (4)2 + 2 = 18
As 18 is not divisible by 4, we can conclude that p is not a multiple of 4.
Case 4: n = 5
Substitute n = 5 in p = n² + 2 and check if the value obtained is a multiple of 4 or not.
p = (5)2 + 2 = 27
As 27 is not divisible by 4, we can conclude that p is not a multiple of 4.
Case 5: n = 6
Substitute n = 6 in p = n² + 2 and check if the value obtained is a multiple of 4 or not.
p = (6)2 + 2 = 38
As 38 is not divisible by 4, we can conclude that p is not a multiple of 4.
Case 6: n = 7
Substitute n = 7 in p = n² + 2 and check if the value obtained is a multiple of 4 or not.
p = (7)2 + 2 = 51
As 51 is not divisible by 4, we can conclude that p is not a multiple of 4.
As all the cases satisfy the statement. The statement, p = n + 2 is not a multiple of 4 when n is an
integer, and 2 ≤ n ≤ 7 is correct.

E. Proof by Counterexamples
Counterexamples play a significant role in mathematics. There are times when a single
counter example is all that is needed to refute the validity of a proposed theorem or proposition,
rather than a complicated proof. In other words, it is a way to disprove results starting “for every x
∈ A ,” find an x that can be proven to be in A and for which the results fails.

Example 1:
n

Prove that 22 + 1 is a prime number.

Proof:
These numbers are prime for n = 1, 2, 3 and 4. But when n = 5, we get
5
32
2 + 1 = 2 + 1 = 4,294,967,297 = 641(6,700,417)
2
n
Thus, we have proved that “not all 22 + 1 is a prime number.”

Example 2:
Prove that “If x and y are rational numbers, then x + y is a rational number.”

Proof:
a c
By definition of a rational number, x= and y= for some quadruple of integers a, b, c, and d
b d
and such that b and d are nonzero.
a c ad +bc
The sum x + y=¿ + = , a rational number by definition.
b d bd
The converse states that “If x and y are real numbers such that x + y is a rational number, then x
and y are rational numbers.”
And this is false, let say for example x = √ 2 + 1, and y = -√ 2.
Neither x nor y are rational numbers, but x + y = 1, which is rational.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

NAME: ___________________________ COURSE/YEAR/BLOC.: ___________

ACTIVITY 1 PROVING
Directions: Prove the following statements according to the type of proof indicated. (10 points each)
1. Prove by direct proof:
“Suppose x ∈ Z . If 7x + 9 is even, then x is odd.”

2. Prove by contrapositive:
“Suppose x ∈ Z . If x2 – 6x + 5 is even, then x is odd.”

3. Prove by contradiction:
“The difference of any rational number and any irrational number is irrational.”

4. Prove by exhaustion:
“Every integer that is a perfect cube is either a multiple of 9, or 1 more, or 1 less than a
multiple of 9.”
5. Prove or disprove by counterexamples:
“For any real numbers a and b, If a2 = b2, then a = b.”