Chapter - 1

 Introduction
 Computer is an electronic device that
converts data into information by following a
set of step by step operations.
 Key terms:
Data (singular: datum) is a collection of raw
facts or figures that describe something.
Information is a processed data.
Representation: is the process of putting data
in a machine readable form.
Storage: the process putting data in memory
for future use
Presentation: putting the data in human
readable and desirable format.
 what is computer?
 Computer is an electronic device. which
serves different purpose to different people.
For a common man computer is simply a
calculator, which works automatic and quite
fast.
For a person who knows much about it,
computer is a machine capable of solving
problems and manipulating data. It accepts
data, processes the data by doing some
mathematical and logical operations and gives
us the desired output.
Therefore, we may define computer as a
device that transforms data.
Data can be anything like marks obtained by
you in various subjects. It can also be name,
age, sex, weight, height, etc.
Computer can be defined in terms of its
functions. It can i) accept data ii) process data
iii) store data, and iv) print the result in
looked-for format.
 Computer Generations
 The evolution of computer started from 16th
century and resulted in the form that we see
today.
 The present day computer, however, has also
undergone rapid change during the last fifty
years.
This period, during which the evolution of
computer took place, can be divided into five
distinct phases known as Generations of
Computers.
 First Generation Computers
 First generation computers used Thermion
valves (vacuum tubes). These computers were
large in size and writing programs on them
was difficult since they use low level
languages (machine languages and assembly
languages).
ENIAC: It was the first electronic computer
built in 1946 at University of Pennsylvania,
USA by John Eckert and John Mauchy. It was
named Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator (ENIAC).
 EDVAC: It stands for Electronic Discrete
Variable Automatic Computer and was
developed in 1950. The concept of storing
data and instructions inside the computer was
introduced here.
This allowed much faster operation since the
computer had rapid access to both data and
instructions.
  Limitations of First Generation
Computer
 Drawbacks of First generation computers.
 The operating speed was quite slow.
Power consumption was very high.
It required large space for installation.
The programming capability was quite low.
The tubes produced a lot of heat and so they
require ventilation
They were unreliable because when the
vacuum tubes get hot they would corrupt.
 Second Generation Computers
 Around 1955 a device called Transistor
replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first
generation computer.
Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and
have higher operating speed.
 They require no heating.
 Manufacturing cost was also very low.
The size of the computer got reduced
considerably.
In the second generation that the concept of
Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory,
programming language and input and output
units were developed.
Second generation computers were faster than
the first generation computers (the memory
access time was in micro seconds).
 Third Generation Computers
The third generation computers were
introduced in 1964. They used Integrated
Circuits (ICs).
These ICs are popularly known as Chips. A
single IC has many transistors, registers and
capacitors built on a single chip (thin slice of
silicon).
The memory access time was in nanoseconds.
 Computers of this generation were small in
size, low cost, large memory and processing
speed is very high.
  Fourth Generation Computers
The present day computers are the fourth
generation computers that started around
1975. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits
(LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors.
Due to the development of microprocessor it
is possible to place computer’s central
processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These
computers are called microcomputers.
 Fifth Generation Computer
The computers of 1990s are said to be Fifth
Generation computers. The speed is extremely
high in fifth generation computer.
Apart from this it can perform parallel
processing. The concept of Artificial
intelligence has been introduced to allow the
computer to take its own decision. It is still in
a developmental stage.
  Trends in Computer Development
 We can observe a number of distinct trends in
the way computers have developed since they
were first introduced.
A . Faster
- If you compare the calculations you can see
that modern computers are at least 100,000
times faster than the first E.g., of digital
computers.
B. Cheaper (Low-Priced)
- In the early days of computing, vast amounts
of money were needed just to build a single
computer.
Today, computers are mass-produced, and
many people can afford to buy their own
computer for their home.
C. More versatile
- The very early computers were designed for a
single purpose (for example, census counting).
- These days computers are capable of
performing a wide range of tasks. Therefore,
they have become more versatile.
d. Smaller
-The ENIAC census counting computer was the
size of a tennis court and the weight of 6
elephants.
- Today, the part of a modern digital computer
that does the processing is about the size of a
coin.
E. Easier to use
- One of the major improvements in computers
over the years is their ease of use. To begin
with, the task of entering instructions into the
computer was very time-consuming and prone
to error. Today computers are much easier to
use.
F. More reliable
- The early computers often suffered from poor
reliability of their components.
- Today, if they are looked after properly,
computers can work for many years without
breaking down.
 Types of Computers
 They are based on the application of
computers for various purposes and the type
of data they process.
 Computers can be classified into three types:
- Analog Computers
- Digital Computers
- Hybrid Computers
  Analog Computers
 Computers that use analog signals for
calculating and transmitting data are called
analog computers.
 The values of the analog signals are
continuously changing with states in between
high and low.
 The analog data is transmitted in a continuous
form that closely reassembles the information it
represents.
 Electrical signals on a telephone line are nothing
but analog data representing the original voice.
E.g. Slide Rule, Thermometer, Hydrodynamics,
Speedometer
  Digital Computers
-The computers that use digital signals to
calculate and transmit data are called digital
computers.
-The digital signal has only two states in
which it can be represented. They are ON and
OFF or HIGH and LOW or 1 and 0.
- Digital data is calculated using the concept
of “counting values”. The result obtained
from the digital computer is more accurate
when compared to the analog computers.
-These computers manipulate digital data and
perform arithmetic and logical operations on
these data.
 Hybrid Computers
-Computer systems that use both analog and
digital mechanisms are called hybrid
computers. Desirable features of analog and
digital computers are combined to develop a
hybrid computer.
- In hospitals, the intensive care unit, an
analog device measures a patient’s heart
function, temperature and other vital signs,
-these measurements are then converted into
numbers and supplied to a digital component
that monitors the patient’s vital signs and
signals to a nurse’s station.
 Based on their size, speed and storage
capacity, (based on capacity and size of
microprocessor).
-Now let us discuss the varieties of computers
that we see today.
- They belong to the fifth generation they can
be divided into different categories depending
upon the size, efficiency, memory and number
of users.
- Broadly they can be divided into the
following four categories.
- Microcomputer: is at the lowest end of
the computer range in terms of speed and
storage capacity. Its CPU is a microprocessor.
- The first microcomputers were built of 8-bit
microprocessor chips.
- The most common application of personal
computers (PC) is in this category. input and
output devices.
- Mini Computer: This is designed to
support more than one user at a time.
- It takes large storage capacity and operates at
a higher speed.
- The mini computer is used in multi-user
system in which various users can work at the
same time.
- This type of computer is generally used for
processing large volume of data in an
organization. They are also used as servers in
Local Area Networks (LAN).
- Mainframes: These types of computers
are generally 32-bit microprocessors.
- They operate at very high speed, have very
large storage capacity and can handle the
work load of many users.
- They are generally used in centralized
databases. They are also used as controlling
nodes in Wide Area Networks (WAN).
- Supercomputer: They are the fastest and
most expensive machines.
- They have high processing speed compared
to other computers. They have also
multiprocessing technique.
- One of the ways in which supercomputers are
built is by interconnecting hundreds of
microprocessors.
- Supercomputers are mainly being used for
whether forecasting, biomedical research,
remote sensing, aircraft design and other areas
of science and technology.
 Characteristics of Computer
-Let us identify the major characteristics of
computer. These can be discussed under the
headings of speed, accuracy, diligence,
versatility and memory.
1. Speed:- Computers can work very fast. It
takes only few seconds for calculations that we
take hours to complete if we make use of
computers.
- Computer can perform millions (1,000,000)
of instructions and even more per second.
2. Storage:- Computer has an in-built
memory where it can store a large amount of
data.
- It is also possible to store data in secondary
storage devices such as floppies,
- which can be kept outside a given computer
and can be carried to other computers.
3. Accuracy
- The degree of accuracy of computer is very
high and every calculation is performed with
the same accuracy. The accuracy level is
determined on the basis of design of
computer.
4. Automatic
Once a program is in the computer’s memory,
it continues without the need for human
intervention until completion.
 5. Versatility
 It means the capacity to perform completely
different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips.
 Next moment you may use it for inventory
management or to prepare electric bills.
6. Diligence (giving the degree of care
required in a given situation)
 A computer is free from tiredness, lack of
concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours
without creating any error.
 If millions of calculations are to be performed,
a computer will perform every calculation with
 7. Can’t Think
 Even if it is artificially intelligent, it does
nothing more than it is programmed to do nor
does it know whether it could do. It does not
create a brand new idea.
8. No Feeling
 It does not have feelings or emotion, taste,
knowledge and experience. Thus it does not
get tired even after long hours of work.
 It does not distinguish between users.
  Application of Computers
Main Application Areas:
1. Commercial application-The emphasis is on
data processing: it covers the use of
computers for clerical, administrative and
business uses
2. Scientific, engineering and research
application -The emphasis is on scientific
processing: it covers the use of computers
for complex calculations, design, analysis
and control of physical system and analysis
of experimental data or results.
3. Computer in Education
 The use of computers in education ranges
from assisting teaching and learning process
to managing it.
 Hence the terms CAL (Computer Aided
Learning) and CAI (Computer Aided
Instruction).Multiple choice questions can be
processed.
4. Computer in Medicine:
In medicine, computers are used
o for analyzing medical research
o to assistance in diagnosis
o to hold details of patients
5. Computers in Manufacturing
o Stock and production control (CAM-
Computer Aided Manufacturing)
o Engineering design (CAD –Computer
Aided Design e.g. Auto CAD)
 Chapter - 2


Computer System Components

 System is a group of components that work
together to attain a common goal.
 Similarly, computer system is composed of
Hardware Components (input, processing,
memory and output units) and Software
Component (system, and application
software).
 Hardware Components
 Hardware components are units that are
visible (or physical)
 Software components are non-visible
programs, procedures and associated
documentations that make possible the
effective operation of computer system.
 Computer can be divided into:
1. Input Unit constituting the various Input
devices.
2. Output Unit constituting the various
Output Devices.
3. Various Components within the CPU
(Central Processing Unit).
4. Memory Unit consisting primary and
secondary memory.
- System components are organized as shown in the
following figure.
  Input Devices
 Input Devices are those devices that are
required to translate data that is in human
readable form, into a form the computer can
process.
 These devices allow direct interaction
between human and machine.
 Input Devices includes:

A. Keyboard
 A Keyboard converts letters, numbers and
other characters into electrical signals that are
machine readable by the computer’s
processor.
 There are two types of keyboard
(a) Special Purpose Keyboard
(b) General Purpose Keyboard
a) Special Purpose Keyboard
contains limited number of keys and they are
used for specific applications.
E.g. 1. Billing Machines
2. ATM in Banks, etc.
b) General Purpose Keyboard
is connected to the personal computer and
look like a typewriter keyboard to which
some additional keys are added.
There are different categories of keys available in
the keyboard.
 Standard tying keys (alphanumeric
keys) are in the same familiar QWERTY
arrangement of letter, number and punctuation
keys found on any typewriter.
 Cursor movement keys:
 The cursor movement keys, or arrow keys,
are used to move the cursor around the text on
the screen.
 These keys move the cursor left, right, up or
down.
 The keys labeled Page Up and Page Down
move the cursor, the equivalent of one page,
up or down on the screen.
 Numeric keypad:
 A separate set of keys, 0 through 9 known as
the numeric keypad, is laid out like the keys
on a calculator.
 Function keys: are the keys labeled with an
F and a number, such as F1 and F2. Personal
Computers have normally 12 Function keys.
 Editing keys: Space bar, Backspace, Delete,
Insert are used to change a text.
  B. Mouse
 Mouse is a small, handy pointing device
containing usually two buttons:
- Primary button (Left button)
- Secondary button (Right Button) and
- Sometimes a scrolling button in the middle.
 Mouse contains a rolling ball beneath it and
on moving the mouse, the cursor moves on
the screen, as the ball rotates.
 The following operations can be performed
using the mouse.
- Selection (Single click)
 - Giving Commands (Double click)
- Dragging Objects (By pressing mouse button)
- Dropping Objects (By releasing mouse button)
 The mouse is designed for selecting
preprogrammed commands from a menu
displayed on the screen.
 Joystick is a pointing device that consists of
a vertical handle mounted on a base
containing one or two buttons.
 The vertical handle of the joystick can be
rotated around 360 degrees.
 As the handle is rotated the cursor also moves
on the screen. Joystick is often used for
playing games.
 Touchpad the cursor is controlled with the
fingers. It is a flat, rectangular device.
 Since it is pressure sensitive to finger and can
sense the horizontal and vertical coordinates
being touched, as fingers are moved over the
surface of the touchpad the cursor moves on
the screen.
 Light Pen is a light sensitive stylus or pen
like device, connected by a wire to the
computer.
 It is used for providing graphical input as
well as menu selection.
 It is mainly used for CAD (Computer Aided
Design) applications.
 Touch Screen is a device that has mixed
characteristics of being input and output
device.
 It displays the choice of commands, and
instructions.
  C. Scanner:
 The keyboard can input only text through
keys provided in it. If we want to input a
picture the keyboard cannot do that.
 Scanner is an optical device that can input
any graphical matter and display it back.
1. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR): - This is widely used by banks to
process large volumes of checks and drafts.
Checks are put inside the MICR.
2. Optical Scanner: these scanners can read
data (text, image, and handwritten
document) recorded on paper.
 D. Microphones :- are used to enter voice
data. They let computers listen to us. Without
microphones, computers would not have
sound data in them.
 E. Digital Cameras :- are photoelectrical
devices that enter image data to computers.
 Output Devices
 Results have to be received from the CPU
after processing. Output devices are used to
receive the results from the CPU after
processing.
 These output devices after receiving the
results, translate the information processed by
the computer into a form that humans can
understand.
 Most output can be divided in to two
categories, sot copy and hard copy.
 Soft copy is ideal when you are writing a
document, playing games, watching a video
clip or reading the latest news. Soft copy is
what you see on the monitor.
 Hard copy can be touched and carried. Hard
copy is usually some form of paper output or
it is printed information.
 There are various output devices:
A. Monitor or Display Devices
B. Printers
C. Other Output Devices
 A. Monitor or Display Devices
 The Monitors are also called as Display
devices or soft copy output devices. These
monitors display information in the human
readable form.
 B. Printers
 Printers are also called as Hardcopy output
devices.
 Using printers any information consisting of
text, symbols, pictures (graphics), etc. can be
printed in paper for future reference.
 C. Other Output Devices
 A Plotter is also a printer that produces hard
copy output.
 Plotters produce high quality color graphics
output by using pens for creating images.
Plotters help to draw maps from stored data.
 Plotters are ideal for Engineering, Drafting
and many other applications that require
intricate graphics.
 Speakers are sound producing output
devices. They are used in multimedia systems.
 Components within the CPU
 The Central Processing Unit is the
Computing part of the Computer and is also
called as the Brain of the Computer.
 The various components within the CPU can
be identified as following:
(a) Control Unit
(b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
 In a (PC) or microcomputer, the control unit
and the ALU together, is a small chip called the
Microprocessor or the Processor.
 This Processor & other components necessary
to make the computer to function are housed in
a main circuit board called the Mother Board or
the System Board.
 The Processor executes the given
instructions and manipulates data into
information.
 The processor can be further divided into two
components:
- Control Unit
 The Control Unit directs the Instructions in
the form of electronic signals, to the rest of
the computer that are input unit, ALU,
memory and output unit.
 The Arithmetic & Logic Unit performs all
Arithmetic and Logical operations and
controls the speed of those operations. The
ALU can be defined as ‘The part of a
computing system containing the circuitry
that does the Adding, Subtracting,
Multiplying, Dividing and comparing.’
 As a separate device the control and ALU
units are known as the Processor. Processors
used in Microcomputers are known as
Microprocessors.
 The speed of the Processor is summed by 2
things.
 The number of Operating cycle it executes in
a time period.
 And the amount of data it can process in one
cycle.
  Memory Unit
 Primary memory is known as the main
memory or internal memory or Random
Access Memory (RAM) of the computer.
 That is, if power is off, information stored in
memory will be destroyed. That is why, main
memories are said to be volatile.
 This main memory is used for storing
- Data - for processing
- Instructions - to process the data
- Results - the processed data.
 There is also another type of Memory called
Read Only Memory (ROM). Information
once stored cannot be modified.
 Information stored in this memory can be
used only for reading purpose. Hence, the
name Read Only Memory.
 Secondary memory
The Memory which can store data or
information permanently for future use is
called secondary storage devices (secondary
memory).
 E.g. of secondary storage devices are:
- Hard disks
- Magnetic Tapes
- CD-ROM (Compact Disk- Read Only Memory)
- Floppy Disks, Etc.
 Hard Disks are also called as Non-
removable disk or Rigid Disk fixed inside the
computer. It can contain more volume of
data.
 Floppy Disks are also called floppies
flexible diskettes or removable disks used for
backup purpose.
 Tape Drives are much slower than disk
drives, but their capacity is extremely large.
 They are generally used for system backups:
long-term storage of large amounts of
important information.
 CD Drives
 Compact Disks (CDs) are removable storage
mediums.
 CD-ROMs are read-only - this means that it
is not possible to write new information to the
disks.
 These can use two different types of
writeable disk: CD-R disks can only be
written to only one time, whereas CD-RW
disks can be written too many times.
 DVD Drives
The technology involved in DVD (Digital
Video Disk) drives is similar to that of CD
drives.
 The following terms are used to the
capacity of the memory
 Bit – Binary digit – Either 0 or 1 – Smallest
unit of measurement.
 Byte – Group of 8 Bits is called a Byte.
 The memory capacity is generally expressed
in multiples of Byte.
- Kilo Byte (KB)-1024 Bytes = 1 KB
- Mega Byte (MB)-1024 KB = 1 MB ~ 1 Million
Bytes
- Giga Byte (GB)-1024 MB = 1 GB ~ 1 Billion Bytes

- Tera Byte (TB)-1024 GB = 1 TB ~ 1 Trillion Bytes

 Software Components
 Definition: is the step-by-step instructions
given to the computer in the form of programs
or procedures or routines in order to
accomplish any specified task or to process
the raw data and convert it into meaningful
information.
 Software is “Soft” because you can’t touch
the instructions, the way you touch the
computer equipment – the “hard” ware.
 Software is of two different types as it is, for
the computer and for the user.
 1. System Software – controls and
coordinates the computer hardware.
 2. Applications Software – designed to
solve a specific problem.
 System Software
 System Software manages the computer’s
basic operations, allows the computer to run
applications software and allows the user to
interact with the computer.
 System software tells the computer how to
interpret data and instructions; how to
communicate with peripheral equipment’s like
mouse, keyboard, printers etc;
 The different types of system software are:
- Operating Systems
- Device Driver
- Language Translators
- Utility Programs
 A) Operating System [OS]:- is system
software containing a set of programs called
the supervisor that manages the basic
operations of a computer.
 Flexibility of the computer usage depends on
Operating System.
 Without the operating system loaded into the
computer, all hardware and other software are
useless.
 When the computer is switched on the
operating system is automatically loaded into
the main memory or RAM of the computer.
 Basic functions of an Operating System
are:
- Input-Output management
- Memory management
- File management
- Job control
 Roles of the operating system
 The operating system is responsible for
managing allocation of the processor between
the different programmers using a scheduling
algorithm.
 The type of scheduler is totally dependent on
the operating system.
 The operating system is responsible for
managing the memory space allocated to each
application and, where related, to each user.
 The operating system is responsible for
security relating to execution of programs by
guaranteeing that the resources are used only
by programs and users with the relevant
authorizations.
 The operating system provides a certain
number of indicators that can be used to
analyze the correct operation of the machine.
 B) Device Drivers:- Each and every device
(input or output) connected to the computer
requires relevant software, which makes the
device to communicate or interact with the
CPU.
 The software that makes the devices to
communicate or interact with the CPU is
called the device driver.
c) Language Translators:- Humans need
to communicate with computers.
 Computers cannot understand data or
information in human readable form.
 The data or information in human readable
form has to be converted into computer
understandable form.
 These computer languages are of two types

- High Level Language

E.g. Basic, FORTRAN, Pascal, C, C++, Java,
etc.
- Low Level Language
E.g. Assembly Language
NB. Both these high level language and low level
language require language translators to convert
the instructions in the human understandable
form into machine understandable form.
D) Utility Programs are generally used to
support, enhance or expand existing programs
in a computer system.
E.g., of utility programs are
Backup - to duplicate the data or information
for safety.
Data Recovery - to restore data that is
physically damaged or corrupted
Virus Protection - Antivirus software which
will eliminate viruses from affected files or
protect files from being infected from viruses.
Data Compression - To compress huge
files and save memory storage.
  Application Software
 Computer Software has become a
multibillion-dollar industry.
 Thousands and thousands of companies have
entered the applications software industry, and
they have developed a wide variety of
products.
 Basically, there are four categories of
application software.
 Productivity Software: The purpose of
this software is to make the users more
productive at performing general tasks
 E.g., word processing, spread sheets,
presentation, database managers, accounting
etc.
 Home / Personal software:- The purpose
of this software is mainly for domestic and
personal use. For example, cook books,
medical guide, farming, etc.
 Education / Reference software:- The
purpose of this software is mainly to learn any
subject or to refer for additional information.
For example: Dictionaries, Computer Based
Tutorials (CBT), etc.
 Entertainment software:- The purpose of
this software is for entertainment and time
passing. For example games.
  Chapter Three
 Data representation and computer
arithmetic
 Data is input into a computer, the numbers or
words we understand are translated into a
binary numbers system.
 Binary is the language of computers.
 Everything you type, input, output, send,
retrieve, draw and so on is, in the end,
converted to the computer’s native language:
binary.
 Binary number system: The binary system uses
only two symbols, 0 and 1, to represent values.
 In the binary system, each digit position represents
a value of 2. b/c computers use the binary system,
powers of 2 play an important role.
 The values in a binary system -- the 0s and 1s --
are called ‘binary digits’ or bits.
 Binary digit (bit): A digit within the binary
number system.
 Byte: A combination of bits that represent one
character. A byte is usually composed of 8 bits.
 If we extend this system, we could use it to
represent numbers. From the right-hand side,
the binary digits could represent the numbers
128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, 1 etc.
 Decimal to Binary Conversions
 There are two important groups of number
base conversions:
1. Conversion of decimal numbers to base-r
numbers
2. Conversion of base-r numbers to decimal
numbers
 Convert 14710 to binary number
14710 = 100100112
Solution
Convert 14710 to binary.
2 |147 1 2 divides 147 73 times with a remainder of 1
2 |73 1 2 divides 73 36 times with a remainder of 1
2 |36 0 2 divides 36 18 times with a remainder of 0
2 |18 0 2 divides 18 9 times with a remainder of 0
2 |9 1 2 divides 9 4 times with a remainder of 1
2 |4 0 2 divides 4 2 times with a remainder of 0
2 |2 0 2 divides 2 1 time with a remainder of 0
2 |1 1 2 divides 1 0 times with a remainder of 1
0
 Since 24=16, all hexadecimal digits can be
represented using a group of 4 binary bits as
follows.
Hexadecimal Number Equivalent Binary Number

0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
A 1010
B 1011
C 1100
D 1101
E 1110
F 1111
 101102 = 1 * 24 + 0 * 23 + 1 * 22 + 1 * 21 + 0
* 20 = 2210
 example Convert 1100100111012 to octal
and hexadecimal.
110 010 011 1012 = 62358 Separate into
groups of 3 for octal conversion
1100 1001 11012 = C9D16 Separate into
groups of 4 for octal conversion
 The Binary System (base 2)
 The word binary is derived from the Latin
root bini (or two by two). In this system the
base b = 2 and we use only two symbols,
S = {0, 1}
 The symbols in this system are often referred
to as binary digits or bits (binary digit).
 The Octal System (base 8)
 The word octal is derived from the Latin root
octo (eight). In this system the base b = 8 and
we use eight symbols to represent a number.
The set of symbols is
S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
 The Decimal System (base 10)
 The word decimal is derived from the Latin
root decem (ten). In this system the base = 10
and we use ten symbols
 The symbols in this system are often referred
to as decimal digits or just digits.
 Different Systems
Decimal: 0, …, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, …
Octal: 0, …, 7, 10, 11, …, 16, 17, 20, 21, ..
Binary: 0, 1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, …
 The Hexadecimal System (base 16)
 The word hexadecimal is derived from the
Greek root hex (six) and the Latin root decem
(ten). In this system the base = 16 and we use
sixteen symbols to represent a number. The
set of symbols is
S = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F}
 Note that the symbols A, B, C, D, E, F are
equivalent to 10,11, 12, 13, 14, and 15
respectively. The symbols in this system are
often referred to as hexadecimal digits.
 Chapter 4: Fundamentals of Computer
Networking
 Data communication
 Communication is the act of conveying
meaningful information
 Requires a Sender, a Message, and an
intended Recipient
 Establishing the Rules
 Communication is successful when the
intended message has been received &
confirmed.
Communications
 The exchange of information between
individuals using a common set of symbols,
signs, behavior or language.
  Three Common Elements of Data of
Communication
 Message source
 The channel
 Message destination
  DT (Data Transmission)
 is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit
stream)
 is a method by which computer networks
send electrical signals.
 Transmission is characterized by:
 Direction of data exchange

a) Simplex mode:
-Only one of the devices on a link can transmit,
the other can only receive.
Example: keyboard, monitor, radio, TV
 b) Half-duplex mode:
In half-duplex mode, each station can both
transmit and receive, but not at the same time.
When one device sending, the other can only
receive and vice versa. Example: walkie-
talkies.
c) Full-duplex mode:
-In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit
and receive simultaneously.
Example: telephone network
- when people are communicating by a telephone
line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
  Computer Networks
 A network is a group of connected computers
that allows people to share resources.
 A system in which a number of independent
computers are linked together to share data
and peripherals, such as hard disks and
printers.
 The term network can also be defined as a
set of different types , terminals, telephones
and other.
 Why Computer Networks Needs
Sharing information/data
Sharing hardware and software
Centralizing administration and support
 Specifically, computers that are part of
a network can share:
 Documents (memos, spreadsheets, invoices,
and so on)
 E-mail messages
 Word-processing software
 Printers.
 Fax machines
 Modems
 CD-ROM drives and other removable drives
 Hard drives So many more…
  Types of networks
 Based on the area coverage of the network,
computer networks can be divides into three.
1. Local Area Network (LAN)
2. Wide area Network (WAN)
3. Metropolitan area Network(MAN)
 LANs
 Local area networks are used to interconnect
distributed communities of computers located
within.
 A single building or localized group of
buildings.
 All equipment is located within a single
establishment, LAN’s are normally installed
and maintained by the organization. They are
also referred to as private data networks.
 Example: network in your class
 Higher data-transfer rates
 Smaller geographic area
  MAN (Metropolitan area Network):
Is a larger network that usually spans several
buildings in the same city or town.
Example: networks among Addis Ababa sub
city administrations (Kifle Ketemas)
 WANs (Wide area Network)
When data communication is necessary or
desired beyond the reach of a MAN, a wide
area
Network (WAN) over public carrier networks
is established.
Institutions transferring large amounts of data
between offices often decide to lease
dedicated
transmission lines from public carriers, in
what is termed an enterprise-wide private
network.
Example : network among news agency
offices in different region of Ethiopia.
Network configuration (Types of networks
based on configuration) computer networks
can be categorized as Peer to Peer and Server
based network.
 Servers - Computers that provide shared
resources to network users.
Clients - Computers that access shared
network resources provided by a server.
Media - The wires that make the physical
connections.
Shared data - Files provided to clients by
servers across the network.
Shared printers and other peripherals
Additional resources provided by servers.
Resources - Any service or device, such as
files, printers, or other items, made available
for use by members of the network
  Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no
dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy
among the computers.
All the computers are equal and therefore are
known as peers.
 there is no administrator responsible for the
entire network.
 Peer-to-peer networks are good choices
for environments where:
 There are 10 users or fewer.
 Users share resources, such as files and
printers, but no specialized servers exist.
 Security is not an issue.
 The organization and the network will
experience only limited growth.
 Advantages of peer to peer network
 Easy to install and configure
 The cost of installation and operation is less
 A full time network administrator is not
required
 Disadvantages of peer to peer network
 Shared resources can be accessed by
everyone.
 Backup has to be performed on each
computer separately
 No centralized security
 Server Based network (client/server
network)
 Servers are described as "dedicated" because
they are not themselves clients, and because
they are optimized to service requests from
network clients quickly and to ensure the
security of files and directories.
Server based network is also known as
Domain.
 Advantages of server based network
 Centralized resources
 Easier to backup files
 Easier to find files
 Security
 One machine can secure entire network
 One central login
 Disadvantage of client server
 If the server determinations down, it takes part
or the whole network with it.
 It is more expensive to install
 Needs to be maintained by staff with high IT
  Network topologies
 The term topology refers to the arrangement or
physical layout of computers, cables, and other
components on the network.
 "Topology" is the standard term that most
network professionals use when they refer to
the network's basic design.
The term "topology," you will find several other
terms that are used to define a network's design:
 Physical layout
 Diagram
 Design
 Map
 Category of Topology
1. Logical: describes the way network data
flows through the physical components.
2. Physical: Physical topology describes how
the physical components on a network are
connected.
 Standard Topologies
All network designs stem from four basic
topologies:
 Bus
 Star
 Ring
 Bus Topology
The bus topology is often referred to as a
"linear bus" because the computers are
connected in a straight line.
This is the simplest and most common
method of networking computers.

 Disadvantages of Bus topology
 If there is a break anywhere in the cable or if
an end is not terminated, the signal will travel
back and forth across the network and all
communication will stop.
 In addition, because of the way computers
communicate in a bus topology, there may be
a lot of noise.
Noise is the traffic generated on the network
when computers attempt to communicate with
each other simultaneously.