MEMORY AND

FORGETING

Lanre Sodeinde, Ph.D, MNACP

Neuropsychiatric Hospital,
Aro, Abeokuta
 Meaning of memory
Stages/Types of
memory
Overview Functions of memory
Storage and retrieval
of information
Memory failure &
implication
Clarifications,
Comments, Questions
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MEMORY
 Introduction
Memory is a complicated process which
people have long been fascinated about
Some pertinent questions usually asked
How does the brain store information?
What is the capacity of memory?
Why do people remember bits of information
and others don’t?
Can people improve their memories?

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 Worth of memory
The value of human memory cannot be
overemphasized
Critical for our day to day functioning
Essential for learning new skills and retrieval of information
Practically all daily activities depend on memory

Clinially
Diagnostic: Mental Status Examination (MSE)
Forensic: An eyewitness’s account
Without memory life will be a series of
disconnected, frustrating and tiresome experiences
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 What is memory?

Ability to recall learnt

information

Process of encoding,
storing, and retrieval of
information.

Process of maintaining
information over time
(Matlin, 2005)
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 What is memory?

Process of drawing past experiences in order

to use this information in the present
(Sternberg, 1999)

An active mental/ cognitive system that

receives information from the senses,
organizes, modify, stores and retrieves
information when required

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 Basic Memory Processes
Three basic stage or procedures are
required for effective memory
functioning
1. Encoding

2. Storage

3. Retrieval
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 Encoding
Initial reception and
registration of
information from the
senses.
Mental process of
converting
information in the
brain’s storage
systems into usable
form

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 Storage
Retention or
preservation of
encoded
information over a
specific time
period.

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 Retrieval
Process of
recalling or
recovering
stored
information or
experience from
memory

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 Computer analogy

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 Types Of Memory
Memory unit is a single unit that is
made up of 3 sub-divisions namely:
1. Sensory unit (SM)

2. Short-term unit (STM)

3. Long-term unit (LTM)

Note:
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There are further divisions within each13
Sodeinde, NPH Aro
categories
 Sensory Memory
Initial brief storage of raw
information from the senses
Lasting a brief moment (¼ sec) to
some few seconds
Types

-Iconic
-
Echoic
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Sensory Memory Sub-types
Iconic memory retain
visual information for ¼
second (lightning,
flashlight)

Echoic memory holds

auditory information for
1-2 seconds. (Snapping of
a stick)

Corresponding memories
for other sensory systems
(Smell, taste, touch)
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 Summary of Sensory
Memory
Iconic
(Eye)

Sensory Echoic
Memory (Ear)
Smell
Corresponding Taste
Sensory
Touch
memories
(Heptic)

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 Sensory Memory Information
Processing
Information from sensory memory
is either transferred to the short-
term memory or decay

Sensory memory Short-Term Decay or fades

(1/4 seconds) memory away

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 Short–Term Memory
Storage facility in which materials
first has meaning

Has limited storage capacity (15-30

seconds) and hold a limited amount of
information
Muller (1956): ‘The Magical Number Seven,
Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on our
Capacity’
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 Short–Term Memory
Muller (1956) concluded that adult memory
span or maximum retention is about 7
elements or ‘chunks’ regardless of whether
the element is digits, letters or words.

However some people store as few digit as

5 items while others store up to 9 (7+/-2)
E.g. Digit span test or mastering digits of
telephone number : 0803-842-0830
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 Working Memory
Most important component of the STM
Fundamental to reasoning, thinking, judgments and
concentration (Baddeley, 1992)
Retains information for 15-30 seconds
MSE:
-Attention & concentration
-Registration, recall, STM
-3
objects, Digit span, serial 7 or 3, DOW, WORLD,

Changes with age

- Working Memory Capacity
increases
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grow NPH older,
Aro but declines in old
20
Working Memory Sub-divisions
1. Executive control system
Coordinates
materials to ponder on during
reasoning and decision making
2. Visuospatial sketchpad
Relates to visual and
spatial information (BGVMT, SDCT,
MMSE)
3. Phonological rehearsal loop
Responsible for
retaining and manipulating materials
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relating to speech, words & numbers 21
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Summary of Short Term Memory
Sub-divisions
STM

Working Memory

1. Executive control system

2. Phonological rehearsal loop
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3. Visuospatial sketchpad
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Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(Assessment of Working Memory)

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 Loss of Information in
STM
STM has 15-25 seconds retention span before
information is lost or transferred to LTM.

Information at the STM is susceptible to

1. Decay

2. Interference

3. Displacement (e.g., Counting interruption)

Information
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Sodeinde, retained
Aro through 24
 Decay
Decay refers to loss of information
through non-use
Trace Decay Hypothesis: information
simply fades out, like a light bulb

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 Interference
Process of information blockage or
displacement in a way that older
information are thrust out of STM
by the newer ones. E.g. forgetting
the phone number

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 Rehearsal
Intentionally reciting or meditating
on an information repeatedly. E.g.
names, phone number, song, etc,

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 Chunking
(George Miller,1956)

Chunking
- Involves meaningful grouping of
stimuli – Bits of
information are organised into meaningful
units (or chunks) so that more information can
be held in STM.
│> s ‘I’ c I – I o l _ o g ‘I’
Telephone number: 0803 - 842 - 0830

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 STM AIDS
Primacy effect: Information that occur
first are better recalled than
information presented latter
Recency effect: Often the last bit of
information are better recall because
not much time has pass
Frequency effect: ‘Rehearsal’, Practice
effect
Distinctiveness: ‘Stand out’
Association: organizing and linking
information to another (Acronyms,
Mnemonic- 30 days
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 Explicit-Implicit Memory
1. Explicit: Conscious recollection of information
or event.
Involves:
- Recall: ability to retrieve previously learned
materials (E.g. fill-in-the-gap exam)

- Recognition: Ability to identify previously

encountered materials. E.g. True/False test,
multiple choice question, objective tests

2. Implicit memory: knowledge that can be

retrieved without conscious recollection
(procedural)
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 Long-Term Memory
Final storage house
Stores vast amounts of information
transferred from the STM over a
long period of time

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 Components of LTM
1. Declarative
2. Non-Declarative (procedural)
memory

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 Declarative Memory
Made up of memory for factual
information, life events, etc. such
as: names, dates, etc.
Involve conscious recollection
(explicit) & description of facts,
events & experiences
Types (Tulving, 1985)

1. Semantic
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 Types of Declarative
Memory
1. Semantic:
2. Episodic: Memory
Memory about for biographical
general knowledge, details, events,
facts, concepts, personal experiences,
words, definition, places, activities
etc.

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 Non-declarative
(Procedural) Memory
Memories for skills (bike riding, tooth
brushing, driving)
Conditioned fears and phobias
(snakes, spiders)

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 Flashbulb Memory
(Brown & Kulik, 1977)

Vivid recollections
unusual, shocking,
dramatic,
emotionally
charged events
Lasting memory
(accidents,
romantic
experiences, etc.)
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 Long-Term Memory

Declarative (explicit):factual
information, such as: names, Procedural (non-declarative,
faces, dates, etc. implicit): Skills (riding, driving, etc.)
& conditioned fears and phobias)

Episodic: Semantic: Skill Priming: Conditioning:

Biographical Nigerian 15th Learning: more likely salivating at
details (MLEs) president Driving a car, to use a the sight of a
riding a bike word you plate!
heard
President Mohammed recently
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FORGETTING
 FORGETTING
Loss of memory
Also known as Amnesia,
Loss of memory or
memory failure
Refers to loss of
information over time
Note: Forgetting
inconsequential
experiences is essential
for effective memory
functioning

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 FORGETTING
Psychogenic vs Biogenic (Organic)
Amnesia
- Loss of memory may
occur after a blow to the head, old
age, drug use or psychological stress

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 Causes of forgetting
1. Encoding Failure
2. Storage Decay
3. Retrieval Failure
4. Repressed memory
5. Distraction/ inattentiveness
6. Interference

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 Encoding Failure
Information from the Short Term
Memory never enter the Long Term
Memory

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 Storage Decay
Loss of information
through non-use
Without rehearsal,
encoded information may
be lost over time through
decay when the
information is not used
Ebbinghaus’s (1885/1913)
study
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 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting
Curve
1. More 50% of the memory loss occurs
within the first hour of learning
2. Virtually about 65% of the material
forgotten after learning is lost in the
first eight hours
3. Information that is not forgotten within
the first eight hours is retained in
memory over a long period of time

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 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting
Curve
The curve shows the rate and amount of
information forgotten over time through decay

There is initial rapid loss of memory, then gradual

and stable loss. Conclusion: More than 50% of
information is lost within one hour
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 Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting
Curve
The dotted line shows learning over an extended period of time.
This suggests that you’re better off working consistently
instead of cramming!!!

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 Retrieval Failure
The memory was encoded and stored,
but sometimes the individual just
cannot access (retrieve) it

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 Retrieval Failure:
Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon
Situation of feeling certain we know a
specific name or word, yet unable to
recall it immediately as a result of
difficulties in retrieving information
stored in LTM.

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 Types of Retrieval Failure
1. Proactive Interference
2. Retroactive Interference

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 Proactive Interference
Aka ‘forward effect’
The disruptive effect
of old learning on
recall of new
information
Case Report: Calling a
new girlfriend the
name of a former
girlfriend (Freudian
Slip?)

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 Retroactive Interference
Aka ‘backward effect
The disruptive effect of new learning
on the recall of old information. E.g.
Phone numbers or when you finally remember this
years locker combination, you forget last years.

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 Memory Disorders
Amnesia
Alzheimer’s
Disease
Korsakoff’s
Syndrome
Seizure Disorder
-
Brief unconscious
behavior
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 Brain

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 Amnesia
Loss of memory or inability to
remember
Temporary or permanent
Causes
Injury
Shock
Fatigue
Illness
Repression,
Drugs Intoxication
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 Types Amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia - (Fugue)
Inability to remember events prior to
brain trauma
E.g. Carpenters, Aro rehab experience
Pi (Case conference)

Anterograde Amnesia
Inability to remember events after injury
Can’t form new memories

Injury

Retrograde Amnesia Anterograde Amnesia

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Time-line NPHin
of events Aro
one’s life 55
 Infantile amnesia
Inability to retrieve memories before age
3.
– Autobiographical memory - the memory for
events and facts related to one’s personal life
story (usually before age 3)

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 Aphasia
The loss of memory for words

Expressive/Motor: Loss of ability to

write/speak words

Receptive/Sensory: Loss of memory

for meaning of spoken, written words,
or symbols
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 Alzheimer’s Disease

Associated with a gradually progressive

loss of memory often occurring in old
age.
Affects 50% of people over 85.
Early onset seems to be influenced by
biological factors including genes, but
90% of cases are late onset.
About half of all patients with late onset
have no known relative with the disease
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 Korsakoff’s Syndrome
Loss of memory as a result of
prolonged thiamine (vit. B1) deficiency
Impedes brain ability to metabolize
glucose.
Leads to a loss of or shrinkage of
neurons in the brain.
Often due to chronic alcoholism
Symptoms include apathy, confusion,
forgetting and confabulation
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Repression (Motivated Forgetting).

Basic defense
Why does it exist?
mechanism
Banishing anxiety
arousing thoughts,
feelings & memories
from consciousness.
Dr Sokoto (Lorena
Babbitt)
Queen Ijb
Malingering

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-Seyi vs Sodeinde, NPH Aro 60
 Repression
(Accident)

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 Case studies
BM , a 56 year old teacher
- Undue forgetfulness (Names)
- Undue
Confusion
- Retrograde/Anterograde amnesia

PI, a 59 year old retired civil servant

-
Undue forgetfulness (eating, dressing)
-
Retrograde, Anterograde
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 Forgetting

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 MEMORY ASSESSMENT
Arithmetic (Serial 7, serial 3)
Digit Span Test
Letter-Number sequencing
MMSE

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 Digit-span test
Memory test in which a series of numbers
is read to subjects, who are then asked to
recall the numbers in order.

Conclusions are that the capacity of STM

is about seven items or pieces of
information, plus or minus two items, or
from five to nine bits of information.

“magical number” = 7
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 Digit Span Test
1. 9-7
2. 5-8-2
3. 7-2-8-6
4. 4-2-7-3-1
5. 3-9-2-4-8-7
6. 4-1-7-9-3-8-6
7. 3-8-2-9-6-1-7-4
8. 2-7-5-8-6-3-1-9-4
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 LETTET-NUMBER
SEQUENCING

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 Psychological Effect of Memory
and Forgetting Disorder
Sense of loss
Low self esteem
Poor self efficacy
Depression
Suicide (extreme cases)

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 Management
Biopsychosocial
Psychotherapy
Insight therapy
Behaviour therapy (environmental
manipulation)
Supportive therapy
- Client
- Caregivers (Burden
of Care)
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• Thanks for your attention!

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Clarifications, Comments,
Questions?