FORGING

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• Forging is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive forces applied through
various dies and tooling.

• Forged parts have good strength and toughness, and are very reliable for highly stressed and critical
applications

• Forging can be performed with a heavy hammer and an anvil,

• However, most forgings require a set of dies and such equipment as a press or a powered forging
hammer.

• Forging may be carried out at room temperature (cold forging) or

• at elevated temperatures (warm or hot forging)

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• Cold forging requires higher forces (because of the higher strength of the workpiece material)

• Cold forging parts have a good surface finish and dimensional accuracy.

• Hot forging requires lower forces

• The dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the parts are not as good as in cold forging.

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 Some hand forging operations are
Upsetting
Drawing Down
Forge Welding

Other classifications of Forging

/ Hammer forging
 impression die forging
 flashless forging.

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Applications
• making nails, bolts, spanners, crane hooks, axles, crank shaft, connecting rod etc.
i) Hand Forging

• Under the action of the compressive forces due to hammer blows, the material spreads
laterally i.e., in a direction at right angles to the direction of hammer blows.

• An ordinary blacksmith uses an open-hearth for heating the metal

• When the metal has become red-hot, the blacksmith uses a handheld hammer to deliver
blows on the metal piece

• This type of forging is called “hand forging”

• It is suitable only for small forgings and small quantity production.

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Upsetting:

• It is the process of increasing the cross-section at expense of the length of the workpiece

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Drawing down:

• It is the reverse of the upsetting process. In this process, length is increased and the cross-
sectional area is reduced.

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Forge welding:

• Used to join two pieces of metal.

• Forge welding of steel is quite common and consists of heating the two ends to be joined to
white heat (1050°C – 1150°C).

• Then the two ends of steel are brought together having previously been given a slightly
convex shape to the surfaces under joining.

• The surfaces are cleaned of scale.

• They are then hammered together using borax as flux.

• The hammering is started from the centre of the convex surface and progresses to the ends.
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ii) Machine Forging

• The forging process in which the metal is moved into the die impression by pressure
applied in a horizontal direction by the moving die in the ram.

• Also called upsetter forging

• It is commonly used for specific jobs like mass manufacture of bolts and nuts from bar
stock.

• The die consists of two halves and a heading tool.

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• The sequence of operations in machine forging.

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Open-die Forging

• Open-die forging is the simplest forging operation

• Open-die forgings generally weigh 15 to 500 kg

• Forgings as heavy as 300 tons have been made.

• Part sizes may range from very small (the size of nails, pins, and bolts) to very large (up to 23 m),
long shafts for ship propellers).

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• Open-die forging can be depicted by a solid workpiece placed between two flat dies and reduced in
height by compressing it

• This process is also called upsetting or flat-die forging.

• The die surfaces also may have shallow cavities or incorporate features to produce relatively simple
forgings.

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• Figure (b) shows the deformation of a workpiece under frictionless conditions

• In actual operations, however, there is friction, and the part develops a barrel shape

• This deformation mode also known as pancaking.

• Barreling is caused primarily by frictional forces that oppose the outward flow of the workpiece at
the die interfaces

• It can be minimized by using an effective lubricant

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• The material at or near the die surfaces cools rapidly, while the rest of the workpiece remains
relatively hot.

• Consequently, the material at the top and bottom of the workpiece has higher resistance to
deformation than the material at the center.

• As a result, the central portion of the workpiece expands laterally to a greater extent than do the
ends.

• Barreling from thermal effects can be reduced or eliminated by using heated dies.
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Cogging

• It is an open-die forging operation

• It is also called drawing out

• In cogging operation the thickness of a bar is reduced by successive forging steps (bites) at specific
intervals.

• Blacksmiths perform such operations with a hammer and an anvil, using hot pieces of metal.

• Because the contact area between the die and the workpiece is small, a long section of a bar can be
reduced in thickness without requiring large forces or heavy machinery.

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Limitations of Open die forging

• Limited to simple shapes

• Difficult to hold close tolerances

• Machining to final shape necessary

• Low production rate

• Relatively poor utilization of material

• High degree of skill required

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Impression-die Forging

• In impression-die forging shaped dies are used

• The workpiece takes the shape of the die cavity while being forged between (two shaped) dies

• usually carried out at elevated temperatures

• During deformation, some of the material flows outward and forms a flash.

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• The flash has an important role in impression-die forging: The high pressure and the resulting high
frictional resistance in the flash presents a severe constraint on any outward flow of the material in
the die.

• Thus, based on the principle that in plastic deformation the material flows in the direction of least
resistance (because it requires less energy), the material flows preferentially into the die cavity,
ultimately filling it completely.

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Closed-die Forging

• Impression die forging can be to as closed-die forging.

• However, in true closed-die forging, flash does not form

• Hence it is also called the flashless forging

• Here the workpiece completely fills the die cavity

• The forging pressure is very high, and accurate control of the blank volume and proper die design
are essential to producing a forging with the desired dimensional tolerances.

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• Hammer forging involves impact load

• Press forging involves gradual loads.

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Precision Forging.

• This technique is developed in order to reduce the number of additional finishing

operations required
• Greater precision in forged products are called (net-shape forming).

• This technique helps to reduce the overall cost of the production process

• Typical precision-forged products are gears, connecting rods, and turbine blades.

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• Precision forging requires

(a) special and more complex dies,

(b) precise control of the blank’s volume and shape, and

(c) Accurate positioning of the blank in the die cavity.

• Also, because of the higher forces required to obtain fine details on the part, this process
requires higher capacity equipment.
• Aluminum and magnesium alloys are particularly suitable for precision forging because of
the relatively low forging loads and temperatures that they require; however, steels and
titanium also can be precision forged.

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Various Forging Operations

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Coining.

• This is a closed-die forging process

• It is typically used in the minting of coins, medallions, and jewelry

• The blank or slug is coined in a completely closed die cavity.

• In order to produce fine details, the pressures required can be as high as five or six times the strength
of the material.

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Heading.

• Heading is essentially an upsetting operation

• Hence, it is also called upset forging

• Heading is usually performed on the end of a round rod or wire in order to increase the cross
section.

• Typical products are nails, bolt heads, screws, rivets, and various other fasteners

• Heading can be carried out cold, warm, or hot.

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Piercing.

• This is a process of indenting the surface of a workpiece with a punch in order to produce a cavity
or an impression

• The workpiece may be confined in a container (such as a die cavity) or may be unconstrained.

• The deformation of the workpiece will depend on how much it is constrained from flowing freely as
the punch descends.

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 Defects in forging

Unfilled section:

• These types of forging defects left some portions in the object unfilled.

• It is caused by poor design of die, less raw material, poor forging techniques, and poor heating.

• To avoid the occurrence of the defect, proper care must be taken on the die design, heating, and
there should be enough raw materials.

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Cold shut:

• These types of forging defects occur as small cracks at the corners of the object.

• It is caused by improper design of the forging die, sharp corners of the object, and excessive chilling
of the forged product.

• These forging defects can be avoided when the fillet radius of the die is increased.

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Scale pits:

• This forging defect occurs due to improper cleaning of the forged surface.

• Scale pit is usual in forging carried out in an open environment.

• It causes irregular deputations on the forging surfaces.

• This defect can be avoided by adequate cleaning of the forged surface.

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Die shift:

• Die shift forging defect is caused when the upper and lower dies are not aligned with each other.

• This will result in improper dimensions of the product.

• The defect can be avoided when the die is properly aligned.

• It can be done by placing half portion of the workpiece on the upper die and half on the lower die so
that both portions can match.

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Flakes:

• These types of forging defects occur due to improper cooling of the forged product.

• It is internal cracks caused when the forged products cool quickly, and it reduces the strength of the
forged product.

• Flakes can be avoided when proper cooling is performed.

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Improper grain growth:

• These forging defects are caused by improper flow of metal during the process which changes the
predefined grain of the product structure.

• It can be avoided by performing a better design of the die.

Residual stresses in forging:

• This type of forging defect takes place when the forged parts are not properly cooled.

• It can be caused by much rapid cooling

• It can be prevented by slow cooling of the forged part.

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Surface cracking:

• Surface cracking is forging defects that arise when the forging operation is performed at low
temperature which leads to the occurrence of cracks on the workpieces.

• It can be controlled by working at a proper temperature.

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• If there is an insufficient volume of material to fill the die cavity completely, the web may buckle
during forging and develop laps

• If the web is too thick, the excess material flows past the already formed portions of the forging and
develops internal crack

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• Internal defects also may develop from

(a) nonuniform deformation of the material in the die cavity,

(b) temperature gradients throughout the workpiece during forging, and

(c) microstructural changes caused by phase transformations.

• Forging defects can cause

o fatigue failures,

o lead to corrosion and

o wear during the service life of the forged component

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 Sheet metal operations

• Sheet metal is metal that is formed into thin, flat pieces.

• Sheet metal is generally produced in sheets less than 6 mm.

Products made of sheet metals include a very wide range of consumer and industrial products, such as beverage cans,
cookware, file cabinets, metal desks, appliances, car bodies, trailers, and aircraft fuselages
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• Compared to those made by casting and by forging, sheet-metal parts offer the advantages of light
weight and versatile shape.

• Low-carbon steel is the most commonly used sheet metal because of its low cost and generally good
strength and formability characteristics.

• TRIP and TWIP steels have become popular for automotive applications because of their high
strength

• Aluminum is the most common material for such sheet-metal applications as beverage cans,
packaging, kitchen utensils, and applications where corrosion resistance is a concern.

• The common metallic materials for aircraft and aerospace applications are aluminum and titanium

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• The term press working or press forming is used commonly in industry to describe general sheet-
forming operations

• Sheet metal forming operations are typically are performed on presses

• A sheet-metal part produced in presses is called a stamping

• Most manufacturing processes involving sheet metal are performed at room temperature.

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Stretch Forming.

• Stretch forming is a tension operation

• In stretch forming, the sheet metal is clamped along its edges and then stretched over a male die.

• The die moves upward, downward, or sideways, depending on the particular design of the machine

• Stretch forming is used primarily to make aircraft wing-skin panels, fuselages, and boat hulls.

• Although this process generally is used for low-volume production, it is versatile and economical,
particularly for the aerospace industry.

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Drawing

• It is an operation of producing thin-walled hallows or vessel shaped parts from sheet metal.

• Both tensile and compressive forces are needed to accomplish this operation

• It can be divided into two categories:

 Deep drawing

 Shallow drawing

 Deep Drawing

• The length of depth of the object to be drawn is deeper than its width.

 Shallow Drawing

• The length of the object to be drawn is less than its width.

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 Deep Drawing

• In deep-drawing process, a round sheet-metal blank is placed over a circular die opening

• The sheet metal blank is held in position with a blank holder, or hold-down ring

• The punch travels downward and forces the blank into the die cavity, forming a cup.

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• Numerous parts made of sheet metal are cylindrical or box shaped, such as pots and pans, all types
of containers for food and beverages, stainless-steel kitchen sinks, canisters, and automotive fuel
tanks.

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Bending

• Bending is a common industrial forming operation that is performed in sheet metals

• Both tensile and compressive forces are developed during this operation

• The force in die bending varies throughout the bending cycle.

• It increases from zero to a maximum, and it may even decrease as the bend is completed.

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o Edge Bending

• It is a type of bending operation, in which a piece of sheet metal is fixed or held between two dies
from one end

• Then the other end is forced to strike upon the punch which is free or unfixed.

• Thus, the free or unfixed edge of the sheet metal piece is bent to make the forming process.

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o V-bending

• In these type of bending operation, when a piece of sheet metal is pressed between the die and the
punch

• It is formed into a V-shape in the die.

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o U-bending

• In this type of a bending operation, in which when the punch is pressed by a force to move into the
die, the sheet metal piece gets formed into a U-shape.

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o Offset bending

• It is a type of bending operation, in which a piece of sheet metal is formed into an offset shape with
the help of a punch and die.

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o Channel bending

• In this type of a bending operation, in which when a force is used to the punch to move into the die,
the sheet metal piece, in between the punch and die, gets the shape according to the shape of the die
and punch i.e. a channel shape.

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Sheet metal forming

• Forming is a process where sheet metal are modified to required geometry (profile) rather than
removing any materials.

• The applied process generates a force that stresses the material to deform.

• This in turn gives the possibility to bend or stretch the sheet to a variety of complex shapes.

• Both tensile and compressive forces are needed to accomplish this operation

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Spinning

• Spinning is a metalworking process by which a disc or tube of metal is rotated at high speed and
formed into an axially symmetric part.

• Spinning can be performed by hand or by a CNC lathe.

• Spinning is also known as metal spinning, spin forming or metal turning

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• Metal spinning does not involve removal of material

• Spinning process involves forming (moulding) of sheet metal over an existing shape.

Process

• A formed block is mounted in the drive section of a lathe.

• A pre-sized metal disk is then clamped against the block by a pressure pad, which is attached to the
tailstock.

• The block and workpiece are then rotated together at high speeds.

• A localized force is then applied to the workpiece to cause it to flow over the block.

• The force is usually applied via various levered tools.

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Applications of spinning process

• Include both commercial, industrial and household applications

Stainless steel bowls formed by metal spinning Fan covers for induction motors

• The following are examples of products that can be

manufactured by metal spinning:
Vases, baskets, basins and bowls. Bottoms for tanks, hoppers and
kettles. Housings for blowers, fans, filters and fly wheels. Ladles,
nozzles, orifices and tank outlets. Cones, cover s and cups.
Funnels, cylinder s, domes and drums. Rings, hemispheres and
shells. Vents, venturis and fan wheels.
Waste bins formed by spinning 54