Module 4

Mobile IP
 ‘Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending
Internet Protocol, IP) that allows the users to move from one
network to another with the same IP address. It ensures that the
communication will continue without the user’s sessions or
connections being dropped.
 Similar to the handoff/roaming situation in cellular network
 Mobile IP allows the mobile node to use two IP addresses
called home address and care of address
 The home address is static and known to everybody as the
identity of the host
 The care of address changes at each new point of attachment
and can be thought of as the mobile node’s location specific
address
 MOVIVATION FOR MOBILE IP
• Routing
– based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g. 129.13.42) determines
physical subnet
– change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological
correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the routing tables
• Specific routes to end-systems?
– change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination
– does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the
location, security problems
• Changing the IP-address?
– adjust the host IP address depending on the current location
– almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to long time
– TCP connections break, security problems
 REQUIREMENTS FOR MOBILE IP
• Transparency
– mobile end-systems keep their IP address
– continuation of communication after interruption of link possible
– point of connection to the fixed network can be changed
• Compatibility
– support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP
– no changes to current end-systems and routers required
– mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems
• Security
– authentication of all registration messages
• Efficiency and scalability
– only little additional messages to the mobile system required (connection
typically via a low bandwidth radio link)
– world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole Internet
 TERMINOLOGY
• Mobile Node (MN)
– system (node) that can change the point of connection
to the network without changing its IP address
• Home Agent (HA)
– system in the home network of the MN, typically a
router
– registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams
to the COA
• Foreign Agent (FA)
– system in the current foreign network of the MN,
typically a router
– forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically
also the default router for the MN
 TERMINOLOGY
• Care-of Address (COA)
– address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at
FA or MN)
– actual location of the MN from an IP point of view
– can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP
• Correspondent Node (CN)
– communication partner
Working of Mobile IP
 Working of Mobile IP
Let’s take the case of mobile node (A) and another host (server X).
The following steps take place:
 Server X wants to transmit an IP datagram to node A. The home
address of A is advertised and known to X. X does not know
whether A is in the home network or somewhere else. Therefore,
X sends the packet to A with A’s home address as the destination
IP address in the IP header. The IP datagram is routed to A’s home
network.
 Working of Mobile IP

 At the A’s home network, the incoming IP datagram is

intercepted by the home agent. The home agent discovers that
A is in a foreign network. A care of address has been allocated
to A by this foreign network and available with the home agent.
The home agent encapsulates the entire datagram inside a new
IP datagram, with A’s care of address in the IP header. This new
datagram with the care of address as the destination address is
retransmitted by the home agent.
 At the foreign network, the incoming IP datagram is
intercepted by the foreign agent. The foreign agent is the
counterpart of the home agent in the foreign network. The
foreign agent strips off the outer IP header, and delivers the
original datagram to A.
 Working of Mobile IP

 A intends to respond to this message and sends traffic to X. In

this example, X is not mobile; therefore X has a fixed IP
address. For routing A’s IP datagram to X, each datagram is sent
to some router in the foreign network. Typically, this router is
the foreign agent. A uses X’s IP static address as the destination
address in the IP header.
 The IP datagram from A to X travels directly across the
network, using X’s IP address as the destination address.
 Working of Mobile IP

 Discovery - A mobile node uses a discovery procedure to

identify prospective home agents and foreign agents.
 Registration - A mobile node uses a registration procedure to
inform its home agent of its care-of address.
 Tunneling - Tunneling procedure is used to forward IP
datagrams from a home address to a care of address.
IP headers in Mobile IP
 Cellular IP

None of the nodes know the exact location of a mobile host.

Packets addressed to a mobile host are routed to its current base
station on a hop-by-hop basis where each node only needs to
know on which of its outgoing ports to forward packets. This
limited routing information (referred as mapping) is local to the
node and does not assume that nodes have any knowledge of the
wireless network topology. Mappings are created and updated
based on the packets transmitted by mobile hosts.
 Cellular IP

 Uses two parallel structures of mappings through Paging

Caches (PC) and Routing Caches (RC)
 PCs maintain mappings for stationary and idle (not in data
communication state) hosts
 RC maintains mappings for mobile hosts
 Mapping entries in PC have a large timeout interval, in the
order of seconds or minutes. RCs maintain mappings for mobile
hosts currently receiving data or expecting to receive data
Relationship between Mobile IP and Cellular
IP
 Internet Protocol version 6

 Successor to today’s IP version 4 protocol (IPv4)

 Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has produced a
comprehensive set of specifications (RFC 1287, 1752, 1886,
1971, 1993, 2292, 2373, 2460, 2473, etc.) that define the next-
generation IP protocol originally known as ‘IPNg’
 Uses 128 bit addresses for each packet creating a virtually
infinite number of IP addresses (approximately 3.4*10**38 IP
addresses) as opposed to 3758096384 IPv4 addresses
 IPv6

 There are global addresses and local addresses

 Global addresses are used for routing of global Internet
 Link local addresses are available within a subnet
 IPv6 uses hierarchical addressing with three level of addresses
 Includes a Public Topology (the 48 bit external routing prefix)
 Site Topology (typically a 16 bit subnet number)
 Interface Identifier (typically an automatically generated 64 bit
number unique on the local LAN segment)
Hierarchical addressing of IPv6
 IPv6 Security

 Comes native with a security protocol called IP Security

(IPSec)
 IPSec protocol is a standards-based method of providing
privacy, integrity and authenticity to information transferred
across IP networks
 Features of IPSec
 Diffie-Hellman key exchange mechanism for deriving key
between peers on a public network
 Public key cryptography to guarantee the identity of the two
parties and avoid man-in-the-middle attacks
 Bulk encryption algorithms, such as 3DES, for encrypting the
data
 Keyed hash algorithms, such as HMAC, combined with
traditional hash algorithms such as MD5 or SHA for providing
packet authentication
 Digital certificates signed by a certificate authority to act as
digital ID cards
 IPSec provides IP network layer encryption
 Migrating from IPv4 to IPv6

 Migration of the network components to be able to support

IPv6 packets. Using IP tunneling, IPv6 packets can propagate
over an IPv4 envelope. Existing routers can support IP
tunneling.
 Migration of the computing nodes in the network. This will
need the operating system upgrades so that they support IPv6
along with IPv4. Upgraded systems will have both IPv4 and IPv6
stacks.
 Migration of networking applications in both client and server
systems. This requires porting of the applications from IPv4 to
IPv6 environment.
 Interconnecting IPv6 networks

 Tunneling is one of the key deployment strategies for both

service providers as well as enterprises during the period of
IPv4 and IPv6 coexistence.
 Tunneling service providers can offer an end-to-end IPv6
service without major upgrades to the infrastructure and without
impacting current IPv4 services.
 Tunneling Mechanisms

 Manually created tunnels such as IPv6 manually configured

tunnels (RFC 2893)
 IPv6 over IPv4 tunnels
 Semiautomatic tunnel mechanisms such as that employed by
tunnel broker services
 Fully automatic tunnel mechanisms such as IPv4 compatible
 Mobile IP with IPv6
 IPv6 with hierarchical addressing scheme can manage IP
mobility much efficiently.
 IPv6 also attempts to simplify the process of renumbering
which could be critical to the future routing of the Internet
traffic.
 Mobility Support in IPv6, as proposed by the Mobile IP
working group, follows the design for Mobile IPv4. It retains
the ideas of a home network, home agent and the use of
encapsulation to deliver packets from the home network to the
mobile node’s current point of attachment.
 While discovery of a care of address is still required, a mobile
node can configure its a care of address by using Stateless
Address Auto-configuration and Neighbor Discovery. Thus,
foreign agents are not required to support mobility in IPv6.
 DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol)
• DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) is a
network management protocol used to dynamically
assign an IP address to any device, or node, on a
network so it can communicate using IP.
• DHCP automates and centrally manages these
configurations rather than requiring network
administrators to manually assign IP addresses to
all network devices. DHCP can be implemented on
small local networks, as well as large enterprise
networks.
 How it works?
• DHCP runs at the application layer of the TCP/IP
protocol stack to dynamically assign IP addresses to
DHCP clients/nodes and to allocate TCP/IP
configuration information to the DHCP clients.
Information includes subnet mask information, default
gateway, IP addresses and domain name system
addresses.
• DHCP is based on client-server protocol in which
servers manage a pool of unique IP addresses, as well
as information about client configuration parameters,
and assign addresses out of those address pools.
 Components of DHCP

• DHCP Server: Device providing DHCP service, assigning IP addresses

and configuration info. Can be a server, router, or any host like an SD-
WAN appliance.
• DHCP Client: Device receiving configuration info from DHCP server,
such as computers, laptops, or IoT devices.
• IP Address Pool: Range of available IP addresses for DHCP clients,
typically assigned sequentially.
• Subnet: Partitioned segments of IP networks for manageability.
• Lease: ease is the length of time for which a DHCP client holds the IP
address information. When a lease expires, the client has to renew it.
• DHCP Relay: Host or router forwarding client messages to a DHCP
server. Centralizes DHCP servers instead of having one on each
subnet
 The DHCP lease process works as follows:

• First of all, a client (network device) must be connected to

the internet.
• DHCP clients request an IP address. Typically, client
broadcasts a query for this information.
• DHCP server responds to the client request by providing IP
server address and other configuration information. This
configuration information also includes time period, called a
lease, for which the allocation is valid.
• When refreshing an assignment, a DHCP clients request the
same parameters, but the DHCP server may assign a new IP
address. This is based on the policies set by the administrator.
 DHCP message types
• DHCP Discover: Sent by a DHCP client to discover DHCP servers available on the
network. The client broadcasts this message to request IP configuration
parameters.
• DHCP Offer: Sent by DHCP servers in response to a DHCP Discover message.
Contains IP configuration parameters offered by the server to the client, including
IP address, subnet mask, gateway, DNS servers, lease duration, etc
• DHCP Request: Sent by the DHCP client to accept an offered IP configuration. This
message specifies which DHCP server the client chooses to obtain its configuration
from. Multiple DHCP offers may be received, and the client selects one and sends a
request to that server.
• DHCP Acknowledge (ACK): Sent by the DHCP server to confirm the lease of the IP
configuration parameters requested by the client.
 DHCP message types
• DHCP Decline: Sent by the DHCP client to indicate that the
offered IP address is already in use or is otherwise unavailable.
This prompts the DHCP server to offer a different IP address.
• DHCP Release: Sent by the DHCP client to voluntarily relinquish
its lease on the current IP address. This occurs when the client
no longer requires the IP address or is shutting down.
• DHCP NAK (Negative Acknowledgment): Sent by the DHCP
server to indicate that the DHCP Request message from the
client cannot be fulfilled. This can happen if the requested IP
address is unavailable or if the client's configuration request
cannot be satisfied.
 MANET
• Manet, short for 'Mobile Ad hoc Network,' is a
type of wireless network where devices
communicate directly with each other without the
need for a centralized infrastructure, like routers
or access points
• MANETs are commonly used in situations where
traditional networks are impractical or unavailable,
such as military operations, emergency response
scenarios, or temporary gatherings like
conferences or festivals.
• Mobile ad-hoc networks should be mobile and use
wireless communications.
• Examples
• Single-hop: All partners max. one hop apart
• Bluetooth piconet, PDAs
in a room, gaming devices.
• Multi-hop: Cover larger distances,
circumvent obstacles
• Bluetooth scatternet,
TETRA police network,
car-to-car networks.
 Mobile Ad-hoc Networking
And mobile IP
Mobile
Router
Manet
Mobile
Devices
Mobile IP,
DHCP
Fixed
Network
Router End system
 Mobile Ad-hoc Networking
And mobile IP
Mobile
Router
Manet
Mobile
Devices
Mobile IP,
DHCP
Fixed
Network
Router End system
 Routing
• Routing of data is most difficult issues in ad-
hoc networks.
• In wireless network with infrastructure
support a base station always reaches mobile
nodes, but in ad-hoc network this is not the
case.
• Destination node may be out of range of a
source node transmitting packets.
 Routing
• In Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs), routing plays a crucial role in facilitating
communication between devices since there's no fixed infrastructure like
routers or access points. Here's a simplified explanation of routing in MANETs:
• Dynamic Routing: MANETs use dynamic routing protocols that allow devices to
adapt and find routes to communicate with each other as the network topology
changes. These changes can occur frequently due to the movement of devices
or changes in signal strength.
• Ad hoc Routing Protocols: There are several ad hoc routing protocols designed
specifically for MANETs. Examples include AODV (Ad hoc On-Demand Distance
Vector), DSR (Dynamic Source Routing), and OLSR (Optimized Link State
Routing). Each protocol has its own way of discovering and maintaining routes
between devices.
• Route Discovery: When a device in a MANET wants to communicate with
another device, it initiates a route discovery process. This involves broadcasting
a route request message to its neighboring devices.
• Route Maintenance: Once a route is discovered, it needs to be
maintained. Since the topology of MANETs is dynamic, routes can break
or become unavailable. Routing protocols employ mechanisms to
detect and repair broken routes by finding alternate paths.
• Hop-by-Hop Routing: In MANETs, data packets are typically routed hop-
by-hop, meaning they are forwarded from one device to another until
they reach their destination. Each device makes routing decisions based
on the information it has about the network topology.
• Efficiency and Scalability: MANET routing protocols strive to be
efficient and scalable, considering the limited resources (such as
bandwidth and battery power) of mobile devices. They aim to minimize
overhead and control message exchanges while maintaining reliable
communication.
• In ad-hoc network each node must be able to
forward data for other nodes.
• This create additional problems, such as Link
don't have same characteristics in both
direction
•N
1 N1
N2 N3
N3 N2

N4 N4
N5 N5

time = t1 time = t2

good link
weak link
Difference between wired networks and ad-
hoc wireless networks.
1. Asymmetric links: Quality of connection may vary
between directions due to mobility and environmental
factors
2. Redundant links: Many redundant links due to dynamic
nature and mobility of devices
3. Interference: Susceptible to interference from various
sources including other wireless devices and
environmental factors
4. Dynamic topology: Dynamic topology with frequent
changes in connections, connection quality, and
participants due to device mobility
 Difficulties in design of ad-hoc routing
protocols
• Traditional algorithm know for wired network
may not work efficiently or fail completely
because these are not design with highly
dynamic topology, asymmetric links, or
interference in mind.
• Additional information such as connectivity or
interference is needed for finding best path.
• Centralized approach cannot be used.
 Routing Algorithms
1.) Destination sequence distance vector(DSDV)
• Enhanced version of distance vector routing
for ad-hoc network.
• DVR is used as routing information protocol in
wired network.
• In DVR each node exchanges its routing table
periodically with its neighbor, this strategy is
not used in case of wireless ad-hoc networks,
due to rapidly changing topology.
• DSVR adds two things to distance vector routing algorithm:
1. Sequence number :Each routing advertisement comes with a
sequence number. Sequence numbers help to apply the
advertisements in correct order
2. Damping :mechanism designed to address transient changes
in network topology that are short-lived and should not
destabilize routing.
Part of routing table for DSDV
Destination Next hop Metric Sequence no. Instal time
N1 N1 0 S1–321 T4–001

N2 N2 1 S2–218 T4–001
N3 N2 2 S3–043 T4–002
N4 N4 1 S4–092 T4–001
N5 N4 2 S5–163 T4–002
• Destination:
– Refers to the network address or IP address of the destination network
or host.
– Each entry in the routing table corresponds to a specific destination.
• Next Hop:
– Indicates the IP address of the next router or gateway to which
packets should be forwarded in order to reach the destination.
– The next hop is determined based on the best known route to the
destination.
• Metric:
– Represents the cost or distance associated with reaching the
destination via a particular route.
– The metric can be based on factors such as hop count, link bandwidth,
delay, or a combination of these.
• Sequence Number:
– A unique identifier assigned to each route entry in the
routing table.
– Helps routers determine the freshness of routing
information.
– Higher sequence numbers indicate newer information.
• Installation Time:
– The timestamp indicating when a particular route entry
was added or updated in the routing table.
– Helps routers determine the age of routing information
and make decisions based on freshness.
– Routes with more recent installation times are considered
more up-to-date.
 2. Dynamic source routing

• DSR divide task of routing into two separate problems

1. Route discovery: A node only tries to discover a
route to a destination if it has to send something to
this destination and there is currently no known
route
2. Route maintenance: If a node is continuously
sending packets via a route, it has to make sure
that the route is held upright. As soon as a node
detects problems with the current route, it has to
find an alternative
 Working of DSR
• If a node needs to discover a route, it broadcasts a
route request with a unique identifier and the
destination address as parameters. Any node that
receives a route request does the following.
1. If the node has already received the request (which is
identified using the unique identifier), it drops the
request packet.
2. If the node recognizes its own address as the
destination, the request has reached its target.
3. Otherwise, the node appends its own address to a list
of traversed hops in the packet and broadcasts this
updated route request.
• Using this approach, the route request collects a list of
addresses representing a possible path on its way
towards the destination.
• As soon as the request reaches the destination, it can
return the request packet containing the list to the
receiver using this list in reverse order.
• condition for this is that the links work bi-directionally. If
this is not the case, and the destination node does not
currently maintain a route back to the initiator of the
request, it has to start a route discovery by itself.
• The destination may receive several lists containing
different paths from the initiator. It could return the best
path, the first path, or several paths to offer the initiator
a choice.
 Example
Applying route discovery to the example in fo a
route from N1 to N3 at time t1 results in the
following.
N1
N2
N3

N4 N5
time = t1

good link
weak link
 Example

1. N1 broadcasts the request ((N1), id = 42, target = N3), N2 and

N4 receive this request.
2. N2 then broadcasts ((N1, N2), id = 42, target = N3), N4
broadcasts ((N1, N4), id = 42, target = N3). N3 and N5 receive
N2’s broadcast, N1, N2, and N5 receive N4’s broadcast.
3. N3 recognizes itself as target, N5 broadcasts ((N1, N2, N5), id
= 42, target = N3). N3 and N4 receive N5’s broadcast. N1, N2,
and N5 drop N4’s broadcast packet, because they all recognize
an already received route request (and N2’s broadcast reached N5
before N4’s did).
4. N4 drops N5’s broadcast, N3 recognizes (N1, N2, N5) as an
alternate, but longer route.
5. N3 now has to return the path (N1, N2, N3) to N1. This is
simple assuming symmetric links working in both directions. N3
can forward the information using the list in reverse order.
The assumption of bi-directional links holds for many ad-hoc
networks. However, if links are not bi-directional, the scenario
gets more complicated. The algorithm has to be applied again, in
the reverse direction if the target does not maintain a current
path to the source of the route request.
1. N3 has to broadcast a route request ((N3), id = 17, target =
N1). Only N5 receives this request.
2. N5 now broadcasts ((N3, N5), id = 17, target = N1), N3
and N4 receive the broadcast.
3. N3 drops the request because it recognizes an already
known id. N4 broadcasts ((N3, N5, N4), id = 17, target =
N1), N5, N2, and N1 receive the broadcast.
4. N5 drops the request packet, N1 recognizes itself as target,
and N2 broadcasts((N3, N5, N4, N2), id = 17, target = N1). N3
and N5 receive N2’s broadcast.
5. N3 and N5 drop the request packet
• Now N3 holds the list for a path from N1 to
N3, (N1, N2, N3), and N1 knows the path
from N3 to N1, (N3, N5, N4, N1). But N1 still
does not know how to send data to N3! The
only solution is to send the list (N1, N2, N3)
with the broadcasts initiated by N3 in the
reverse direction. This example shows clearly
how much simpler routing can be if links are
symmetrical.
 Route maintenance is DSR
• After a route has been discovered, it has to be
maintained for as long as the node sends packets
along this route. Depending on layer two
mechanisms, different approaches can be taken:
1. If the link layer uses an acknowledgement (as,
for example, IEEE 802.11) the node can interpret
this acknowledgement as an intact route.
2. If possible, the node could also listen to the next
node forwarding the packet, so getting a passive
acknowledgement
3. A node could request an explicit acknowledgement.
 Conclusion of DSR
Dynamic source routing offers benefits
compared to other algorithms by being much
more bandwidth efficient, problems arise if the
topology is highly dynamic and links are
asymmetrical.
 Overview of ad-hoc routing protocols
• Hong (2002) separates routing algorithms into
three categories:
1. flat routing,
2. hierarchical routing,
3. geographic-position-assisted routing.
 Flat ad-hoc routing
• Flat ad-hoc routing protocols comprise those
protocols that do not set up hierarchies with
clusters of nodes, special nodes acting as the head
of a cluster, or different routing algorithms inside or
outside certain regions.
• All nodes in this approach play an equal role in
routing.
• The addressing scheme is flat.
• This category again falls into two subcategories:
proactive and reactive protocols.
• Proactive type of protocols maintains fresh lists of
destinations and their routes by periodically
distributing routing tables throughout the network.
• The main disadvantages of such algorithms are:
1. Respective amount of data for maintenance.
2. Slow reaction on restructuring and failures.
• Examples of proactive algorithms are:
1. Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSRP)
2. Destination Sequence Distance Vector (DSDV)
• reactive protocols finds a route on demand by
flooding the network with Route Request packets.
• The main disadvantages of such algorithms are:
1. High latency time in route finding.
2. Excessive flooding can lead to network clogging.
• Examples of on-demand algorithms are:
1. Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector(AODV)
2. Dynamic Source Routing
3. Flow State in the Dynamic Source Routing
 Hierarchical ad-hoc routing
• Algorithms such as DSDV, AODV, and DSR only work
for a smaller number of nodes and depend heavily
on the mobility of nodes.
• For larger networks, clustering of nodes and using
different routing algorithms between and within
clusters can be a scalable and efficient solution.
• The advantage is that if the topology within a
cluster changes, only nodes of the cluster have to
be informed. Nodes of other clusters only need to
know how to reach the cluster.
Clustering of ad-hoc networks
Internet
Base station Cluster head

Cluster
Super cluster
• Clusters can be combined to form super clusters etc.,
building up a larger hierarchy.
• Using this approach, one or more nodes can act as
cluster heads, representing a router for all traffic
to/from the cluster.
• All nodes within the cluster and all other cluster heads
use these as gateway for the cluster.
• Figure shows an ad-hoc network with interconnection
to the internet via a base station. This base station
transfers data to and from the cluster heads. In this
example, one cluster head also acts as head of the
super cluster, routing traffic to and from the super
cluster.
• Different routing protocols may be used inside and
outside clusters.
• Some are
1. CGSR – Clusterhead-Gateway Switch
Routing
2. HSR – Hierarchical State Routing
3. LANMAR – Landmark Ad Hoc Routing
4. ZRP – Zone Routing Protocol
 Geographic-position-assisted ad-hoc
routing
• If mobile nodes know their geographical position this can be
used for routing purposes.
• This improves the overall performance of routing algorithms .
• One way to acquire position information is via the global
positioning system (GPS).
• Mauve (2001) gives an overview of several position-based ad-
hoc routing protocols.
• some of them are
1. DREAM – Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility
2. GeoCast – Geographic Addressing and Routing
3. GPSR – Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing
4. LAR – Location-Aided Routing
 Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE)
• Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) is a
tunneling protocol that encapsulates a wide
variety of network layer protocols inside
virtual point-to-point links. This encapsulation
process allows data packets from one network
protocol to be transported over another
network protocol.
• Here's how data packets are encapsulated via
Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE):
1. Header Addition:
– When a data packet enters a GRE tunnel, a new GRE header is added
to the packet.
– The GRE header contains fields such as the Key, Protocol Type,
Checksum, and the Source and Destination IP addresses of the tunnel
endpoints.
2. Original Packet Encapsulation:
– The original packet, along with its header, is encapsulated inside the
GRE packet. This means the entire original packet becomes payload for
the GRE packet.
3. Protocol Identification:
– The Protocol Type field in the GRE header specifies the type of the
encapsulated protocol. It indicates the type of the original packet being
encapsulated, such as IPv4, IPv6, or any other network layer protocol.
4. Routing:
– Once the packet is encapsulated, it is routed through the network as if it
were a regular packet, regardless of the encapsulated protocol.
– Routers along the path forward the packet based on the destination IP
address in the outer IP header, which is the address of the receiving
endpoint of the GRE tunnel.
5. Decapsulation:
– Upon reaching the destination endpoint of the GRE tunnel, the GRE
header is stripped from the packet, leaving the original packet intact.
– The original packet is then forwarded based on the information in its own
header, as if it had never been encapsulated.
6. Delivery:
– Finally, the original packet is delivered to its ultimate destination as if it
had been sent directly without traversing the GRE tunnel.
 Mobile Transport Layer
●
Mobility support on only lower layer is not
enough to provide mobility support for
applications.
●
• As application is directly communicates with
transport Layer only.
 Traditional TCP
Traditional TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a core
protocol of the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) and serves as
a reliable, connection-oriented, and stream-oriented
communication protocol. It ensures the reliable delivery of
data packets between devices over a network, typically the
Internet. It include Mechanisms that influence the efficiency
of TCP in a mobile environment
 Congestion control
 Slow start
 Fast retransmit/fast recovery
 Implications on mobility
Congestion control

 TCP has been designed for fixed networks with fixed end-systems
 Hardware and software are mature enough to ensure reliability of data

 The probable reason for a packet loss in a fixed network is a

temporary overload some point in the transmission path, i.e., a state of
congestion at a node
 The packet buffers of a router are filled and the router cannot forward
the packets fast enough
 The only thing a router can do in this situation is to drop packets

 The sender notices the missing acknowledgement for the lost packet
and assumes a packet loss due to congestion
 Retransmitting the missing packet and continuing at full sending rate
would now be unwise, as this might only increase the congestion.
Slow start

 The behavior TCP shows after the detection of congestion is called slow start
 The sender always calculates a congestion window for a receiver.
 The start size of the congestion window is one segment (TCP packet).

 This scheme doubles the congestion window every time the acknowledgements
come back, which takes one round trip time (RTT) like 1, 2, 4, 8 etc.
 This is called the exponential growth of the congestion window in the slow start
mechanism.
 The exponential growth stops at the congestion threshold.

 As soon as the congestion window reaches the congestion threshold, further

increase of the transmission rate is only linear by adding 1 to the congestion
window each time the acknowledgements come back
 Linear increase continues until a time-out at the sender occurs due to a missing
acknowledgement, or until the sender detects a gap in transmitted data
o the sender sets the congestion threshold to half of the current congestion window
o The congestion window itself is set to one segment
Fast retransmit/fast recovery Fast

Retransmit
 a receiver sends acknowledgements only if
it receives any packets from the sender.
 Receiving acknowledgements from a receiver also shows that
the receiver continuously receives something from the sender.
 The gap in the packet stream is not due to severe
congestion, but a simple packet loss due to a transmission
error.
 The sender can now retransmit the missing packet(s) before
the timer expires.
 This behavior is called fast retransmit
Fast recovery

 The receipt of acknowledgements shows that there is no

congestion to justify a slow start.
 The sender can continue with the current congestion window.
 The sender performs a fast recovery from the packet loss
 This mechanism can improve the efficiency of TCP
dramatically
Implications on mobility

 TCP concludes a congestion situation from a missing acknowledgement

o typically wrong in wireless networks, here we often have packet loss due
to transmission errors
o mobility itself can cause packet loss, if e.g. a mobile node roams
from one access point (e.g. foreign agent in Mobile IP) to another
while there are still packets in transit to the wrong access point and
forwarding is not possible
 The performance of an unchanged TCP degrades severely
o TCP cannot be changed fundamentally due to the large base of
installation in the fixed network,
 TCP for mobility has to remain compatible
o the basic TCP mechanisms keep the whole Internet together
 CLASSICAL TCP IMPROVEMENTS

 Indirect TCP (I-TCP)

 Snooping TCP
 Mobile TCP
 Fast retransmit/fast recovery
 Transmission/time-out freezing
 Selective retransmission
 Transaction-oriented TCP
Indirect TCP (I-TCP)

Socket and state migration after handover of a

mobile host
 I-TCP segments a TCP connection into a
o fixed part - Standard TCP is used
o wireless part - optimized TCP protocol
 splitting of the TCP connection at, e.g., the foreign agent into 2 TCP connections,
no real end-to-end connection any longer
 hosts in the fixed part of the net do not notice the characteristics of the wireless
part
Advantages

 no changes in the fixed network necessary, no changes for the hosts (TCP protocol)
necessary, all current optimizations to TCP still work
 transmission errors on the wireless link do not propagate into the fixed network
 simple to control, mobile TCP is used only for one hop between, e.g., a foreign agent
and mobile host
 therefore, a very fast retransmission of packets is possible, the short delay on the
mobile hop is known
Disadvantages
 loss of end-to-end semantics, an acknowledgement to a sender does now not any longer
mean that a receiver really got a packet, foreign agents might crash
 higher latency possible due to buffering of data within the foreign agent and forwarding
 Snooping TCP

 the foreign agent buffers all packets with destination mobile host and
additionally ‘snoops’ the packet flow in both directions to recognize
acknowledgements
 buffering enable the FA to perform a local retransmission in case of packet
loss on the wireless link
 Transparent extension of TCP within the foreign agent
 buffering of packets sent to the mobile host

 lost packets on the wireless link (both directions!) will be retransmitted

immediately by the mobile host or foreign agent, respectively (so called
“local” retransmission)
 the foreign agent therefore “snoops” the packet flow and recognizes
acknowledgements in both directions, it also filters ACKs
 changes of TCP only within the foreign agent
 Data transfer to the mobile host
o FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH, FA detects packet loss
via duplicated ACKs or time-out
o fast retransmission possible, transparent for the fixed network
 Data transfer from the mobile host
o FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers,
 FA answers directly with a NACK to the MH
o MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay
 Integration of the MAC layer
o MAC layer often has similar mechanisms to those of TCP
o thus, the MAC layer can already detect duplicated packets due
to retransmissions and discard them
 Problems
 snooping TCP does not isolate the wireless link as good as I-
TCP
Advantages

 The end-to-end TCP semantic is preserved

 The correspondent host does not need to be changed; most of the enhancements are in
the foreign agent
 It does not need a handover of state as soon as the mobile host moves to another
foreign agent.
 It does not matter if the next foreign agent uses the enhancement or not

Disadvantages

 Snooping TCP does not isolate the behavior of the wireless link as
well as ITCP
 Using negative acknowledgements between the foreign agent and the mobile host
assumes additional mechanisms on the mobile host.
 All efforts for snooping and buffering data may be useless if certain encryption
schemes are applied end-to- end between the correspondent host and mobile host
 Mobile TCP

• Special handling of lengthy and/or frequent

disconnections
 M-TCP splits as I-TCP does
o unmodified TCP fixed network to supervisory host
(SH)
o optimized TCP SH to MH
 Supervisory host
o no caching, no retransmission
o monitors all packets, if disconnection detected
 set sender window size to 0
 sender automatically goes into persistent mode
o old or new SH reopen the window
 Advantages
o maintains semantics, supports disconnection, no buffer
forwarding
 Disadvantages
o loss on wireless link propagated into fixed network
o adapted TCP on wireless link
 Fast retransmit / fast recovery

 Change of foreign agent often results in packet loss

o TCP reacts with slow-start although there is no congestion
 Forced fast retransmit
o as soon as the mobile host has registered with a new foreign agent,
the MH sends duplicated acknowledgements on purpose
o this forces the fast retransmit mode at the communication partners
o additionally, the TCP on the MH is forced to continue sending with the
actual window size and not to go into slow-start after registration
 Advantage
o simple changes result in significant higher performance
 Disadvantage
o further mix of IP and TCP, no transparent approach
 Transmission / time-out freezing

 Mobile hosts can be disconnected for a longer time

o no packet exchange possible, e.g., in a tunnel, disconnection due to
overloaded cells or mux. with higher priority traffic
o TCP disconnects after time-out completely
 TCP freezing
o MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance
o MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection
o TCP stops sending, but does now not assume a congested link
o MAC layer signals again if reconnected
 Advantage
o scheme is independent of data
 Disadvantage
o TCP on mobile host has to be changed, mechanism depends on MAC
layer
 Selective retransmission

Selective retransmission

 TCP acknowledgements are often cumulative

o ACK n acknowledges correct and in-sequence receipt of packets up to n
o if single packets are missing quite often a whole packet sequence
beginning at the gap has to be retransmitted (go-back-n), thus wasting
bandwidth
 Selective retransmission as one solution
o RFC2018 allows for acknowledgements of single packets, not only
acknowledgements of in-sequence packet streams without gaps
sender can now retransmit only the missing packets
o
 Advantage
much higher efficiency
o
 Disadvantage
o more complex software in a receiver, more buffer needed at the receiver
Transaction-oriented TCP
 Wireless Application Protocol
• WAP stands for Wireless Application Protocol

• WAP is an application communication protocol

• WAP is used to access services and information

• WAP is inherited from standards

• WAP is for handheld devices such as mobile phones

• The WAP is the leading standard for information services on wireless

terminals like digital mobile phones.

• The WAP standard is based on Internet standards (HTML, XML and TCP/IP).
• Wireless Application Protocol (WAP) is a specification for a set of
communication protocols to standardize the way wireless devices,
such as mobile phones and radio transceivers, can be used for
internet access, including email, the web, newsgroups and instant
messaging.
• WAP was conceived in 1997 by Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia and
Unwired Planet (now Enea Openwave Mobility) at an event
known as the WAP Forum. While wireless internet access was
possible before the introduction of WAP, different manufacturers
used varying technologies, and WAP was intended to be an
industry standard. However, WAP is now considered obsolete, as
modern devices use networks and browsers that function
similarly to those on PCs.
 Working of Wireless Application Protocol or WAP Model
The following steps define the working of Wireless Application Protocol or
WAP Model:
• The WAP model consists of 3 levels known as Client, Gateway and Origin
Server.
• When a user opens the browser in his/her mobile device and selects a
website that he/she wants to view, the mobile device sends the URL
encoded request via a network to a WAP gateway using WAP protocol.
• The request he/she sends via mobile to WAP gateway is called as encoding
request.
• The sent encoding request is translated through WAP gateway and then
forwarded in the form of a conventional HTTP URL request over the
Internet.
• When the request reaches a specified Web server, the server processes
the request just as it would handle any other request and sends the
response back to the mobile device through WAP gateway.
• Now, the WML file's final response can be seen in the browser of the
mobile users.
WAP Architecture
• The WAP (Wireless Application Protocol)
architecture consists of several layers, each
serving a specific purpose in enabling
communication between wireless devices and
servers over mobile networks. Here are the
typical layers and protocols involved:
• Application Layer:
This layer consists of the Wireless Application Environment (WAE), mobile device
specifications, and content development programming languages, i.e., WML.
.
– . The Wireless Application Environment, or WAE, provides an architecture for
communication between wireless devices and Web servers. To understand WAE, you
should first be familiar with the World Wide Web (WWW) model, which is a simpler
architecture based on similar principles.
• Session Layer:
The session layer consists of the Wireless Session Protocol (WSP). It is responsible
for fast connection suspension and reconnection.
– WSP (Wireless Session Protocol): A session-layer protocol that provides a reliable and
secure connection between the WAP client and server. It's similar to HTTP but optimized
for wireless communication.
• Transaction Layer:
, The transaction layer consists of Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP) and runs on
top of UDP (User Datagram Protocol). This layer is a part of TCP/IP and offers
transaction support.
– WTP (Wireless Transaction Protocol): A transaction-layer protocol responsible for
ensuring reliable data transfer between the client and server. It manages message
segmentation, reassembly, and error recovery.
• Security Layer:
It contains Wireless Transaction Layer Security (WTLS) and responsible
for data integrity, privacy and authentication during data transmission.

– WTLS (Wireless Transport Layer Security): A security protocol based on TLS

(Transport Layer Security) designed for the constraints of wireless networks.
It provides encryption, authentication, and data integrity services.
• Transport Layer:
This layer consists of Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP) and WCMP
(Wireless Control Message Protocol):.
– WDP (Wireless Datagram Protocol): This layer handles the transmission of
datagrams over various wireless bearers, such as SMS, GSM, CDMA, or GPRS.
It adapts higher-layer protocols to the specific characteristics of the
underlying wireless network.
– WCMP (Wireless Control Message Protocol): This could refer to a protocol
used within the WAP stack for managing control messages. Control
messages are typically used for tasks such as session management, error
handling, and negotiation between the client device and the server. WCMP
would handle these control messages, ensuring reliable communication
between the client and server in a wireless environment.
 – Wireless Session Protocol (WSP): WSP operates on top
of WDP and provides session-oriented services to the
higher-level application protocols. It handles tasks such
as session management, request/response mapping,
and transaction handling.
• Bearer Layer:
– Various Wireless Bearers (SMS, GSM, CDMA, GPRS,
etc.): These are the physical networks over which the
WAP communication occurs. Each bearer has its own
characteristics, such as bandwidth, latency, and
coverage area.
Advantages of WAP:
• Mobile Accessibility: WAP enables users to access internet services and
information from their mobile devices, allowing them to browse websites and
perform online tasks on the go.
• Optimized for Mobile: WAP technologies are designed to work efficiently on
mobile devices with limited resources, ensuring that content is properly
displayed and applications run smoothly.
• Standardization: WAP standards are widely adopted, ensuring compatibility and
interoperability across various mobile devices and networks.
Disadvantages of WAP:
• Limited User Experience: WAP-based applications may offer a less engaging and
feature-rich experience compared to desktop equivalents due to the constraints
of mobile devices.
• Performance Issues: WAP protocols can introduce latency and slower
performance compared to direct internet access, especially in areas with poor
network coverage.
• Security Concerns: WAP connections may be susceptible to security threats such
as eavesdropping and unauthorized access, posing risks to sensitive data
transmitted over mobile networks.
•
Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP)
The Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP) operates on top of many different
bearer services capable of carrying data.
• At the T-SAP WDP offers a consistent datagram transport service
independent of the underlying bearer.
• WDP operates on various bearer services.
• Adaptation in the transport layer depends on bearer services.
• It uses UDP when the bearer supports IP services. WDP offers services
similar to UDP and includes source and destination port numbers for data
multiplexing and demultiplexing.
• Sending a datagram requires parameters such as destination address,
destination port, source address, source port, and user data.
• The service primitive for sending a datagram is TDUnitdata.req, which
requires destination address, destination port, source address, source port,
and user data as mandatory parameters. Destination and source addresses
are unique identifiers such as MSISDNs or IP addresses.
• The T-DUnitdata.ind service primitive indicates the reception of data, with
destination address and port being optional parameters.
• If a higher layer requests a service the WDP cannot fulfill, this error is
indicated with the T-DError.ind service primitive as shown in Figure 10.11.
An error code (EC) is returned indicating the reason for the error to the
higher layer.
• WDP is not allowed to use this primitive to indicate problems with the
bearer service. It is only allowed to use the primitive to indicate local
problems, such as a user data size that is too large.
• If any errors happen when WDP datagram‘s are sent from one WDP
entity to another (e.g. the destination is unreachable, no application is
listening to the specified destination port etc.), the wireless control
message protocol (WCMP) provides error handling mechanisms for WDP
and should therefore be implemented. WCMP contains control messages
that resemble the internet control message protocol messages and can
also be used for diagnostic and informational purposes.
• WCMP can be used by WDP nodes and gateways to
report errors. However, WCMP error messages
must not be sent as response to other WCMP error
messages. In IP-based networks, ICMP will be used
as WCMP (e.g., CDPD, GPRS). Typical WCMP
messages are destination unreachable (route,
port, address unreachable), parameter
problem (errors in the packet header), message
too big, reassembly failure, or echo
request/reply.
 Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS)

• This is a security protocol used in wireless communication systems to

secure data transmission over a wireless network. It is similar to TLS
(Transport Layer Security) but adapted for the constraints of wireless
networks.
• WTLS can provide different levels of security (for privacy, data integrity,
and authentication) and has been optimized for low bandwidth, high-
delay bearer networks.
• WTLS takes into account the low processing power and very limited
memory capacity of the mobile devices for cryptographic algorithms.
• WTLS supports datagram and connection-oriented transport layer
protocols.
• Establishes security relations between peers, not just between mobile
devices and base stations.
• It inherits many features from TLS (Transport Layer Security) but has
optimizations for handshaking between peers.
 Before data can be exchanged via WTLS, a secure session has to be
established. This session establishment consists of several steps
 The originator and the peer of the secure session can both interrupt
session establishment any time, e.g., if the parameters proposed are
not acceptable.
The steps are
• Initiating Session: The originator begins by initiating the session with
the SEC-Create primitive. It provides parameters including source
address, source port, destination address, destination port, key
exchange suite (KES), cipher suite (CS), and compression method (CM).
• Peer Response: The peer responds with parameters for sequence
number mode (SNM), key refresh cycle (KR), session identifier (SID),
and selected key exchange suite (KES‘), cipher suite (CS‘), compression
method (CM‘). The peer also requests a client certificate (CC) from the
originator using SEC-Exchange primitive.
• Originator Response: The originator provides its certificate and issues
a SEC-Commit.req primitive, indicating completion of the handshake
on its side and readiness to switch to the newly negotiated connection
• Peer Confirmation: The originator's certificate is
delivered to the peer, and a SEC-Commit is indicated.
The peer's WTLS layer sends a confirmation back to
the originator, concluding the full handshake for
secure session setup.
• Data Exchange: After setting up the secure
connection, user data exchange begins using SEC-Unit
data primitive. This primitive transfers datagrams
between sender and receiver, ensuring security. It's
similar to T-D Unit data on the WDP layer but adds
security. Parameters include source address, source
port, destination address, destination port, and user
data.
 WTP: Wireless Transaction Protocol
• Designed to support thin clients.
• Provides reliability over datagram services,
• Improve efficiency over connection oriented services.
• Support transaction oriented services.
• support for different communication scenarios
• class 0: unreliable message transfer
– unconfirmed Invoke message with no Result message
– a datagram that can be sent within the context of an existing Session
• class 1: reliable message transfer without result message
– confirmed Invoke message with no Result message
– used for data push, where no response from the destination is expected
• class 2: reliable message transfer with exactly one reliable result message
– confirmed Invoke message with one confirmed Result message
– a single request produces a single reply
 WTP: Wireless Transaction Protocol
• Achieves reliability using
• Retransmission
• Acknowledgements
• Unique Transaction identifiers

• No class requires connection setup or tear down

• Allows
• Asynchronous transactions
• Abort of transactions
• Concatenation of messages
• Report success or failure
 WTP: Wireless Transaction Protocol
• TR-Invoke.req
• To initiate a new transaction
• TR-Result.req
• Result of the previously initiated transaction
• TR-Abort.req
• To abort an existing transaction.
 WTP: Wireless Transaction Protocol
• WTP class 0: unreliable message transfer
• These transactions are stateless and cannot be aborted
• TR-Invoke.req (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=0, H)
• Where
– A is ack flag, if the the responder WTP should be generate an ACK or
if USER ACK is used.
– C is Class type which is 0 for this class
– H Handle simple index to uniquely identify the transaction.

• In this class the responder does not ACK and initiator does not perform any
retransmission.
• This occasionally used
 WTP Class 0 Transaction
initiator responder
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=0, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
PDU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=0, H‘)

A: Acknowledgement Type (WTP/User)

C: Class (0,1,2)
H: Handle (socket alias)

Source: Schiller
 WTP: Wireless Transaction Protocol
• WTP class 1: reliable message transfer without result message
• Sender send a TR-Invoke.req (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H)
• Responder signals the incoming by TR-Invoke.ind and ACK automatically
• Where
– C is Class type which is 1 for this class

• Sender on receipt of ACK will close the connection

• Responder maintains the connection for sometime incase it receives the
duplicate TR-Invoke.req indicating loss of its ACK.
 WTP Class 1 Transaction, no user ack & user ack
initiator responder
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
PDU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H‘)
TR-Invoke.cnf U
(H) Ack PD

user ACK is
required initiator responder
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
PDU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H‘)
TR-Invoke.res
(H‘)
TR-Invoke.cnf U
(H) Ack PD

Source: Schiller
 WTP: Wireless Transaction Protocol
• WTP class 2: reliable message transfer with exactly one reliable result
message
• Reliable request/respond transaction

• Sender send a TR-Invoke.req (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=1, H)

• Responder signals the incoming by TR-Invoke.ind and ACK automatically
• Where
– C is Class type which is 1 for this class

• Sender on receipt of ACK will close the connection

• Responder maintains the connection for sometime incase it receives the
duplicate TR-Invoke.req indicating loss of its ACK.
 WTP Class 2 Transaction, no user ack, no
hold on
initiator responder
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=2, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
PDU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=2, H‘)
TR-Result.req
(UD*, H‘)
TR-Invoke.cnf P DU
(H) Result

TR-Result.ind
(UD*, H)
TR-Result.res
(H)
Ack PD TR-Result.cnf
U
(H‘)

Source: Schiller
 WTP Class 2 Transaction, user ack
initiator responder
TR-SAP TR-SAP
TR-Invoke.req
(SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=2, H) TR-Invoke.ind
Invoke
PDU (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=2, H‘)
TR-Invoke.res
(H‘)
TR-Invoke.cnf U
(H) Ack PD TR-Result.req
(UD*, H‘)
TR-Result.ind P DU
(UD*, H) Result

TR-Result.res
(H)
Ack PD TR-Result.cnf
U
(H‘)

Source: Schiller
 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol
• Goals
– HTTP 1.1 functionality
• Request/reply, content type negotiation, ...
– support of client/server transactions, push technology
– key management, authentication, Internet security services

• WSP Services
– provides shared state between client and server, optimizes content
transfer
– session management (establish, release, suspend, resume)
– efficient capability negotiation
– content encoding

• WSP/B (Browsing)
– HTTP/1.1 functionality - but binary encoded
– exchange of session headers
– push and pull data transfer
– asynchronous requests
 WSP/B session establishment
client server
S-SAP S-SAP
S-Connect.req
(SA, CA, CH, RC) Conne S-Connect.ind
ct PDU
(SA, CA, CH, RC)
S-Connect.res
(SH, NC)
S-Connect.cnf
nR epl y PDU
(SH, NC) Con

WTP Class 2
transaction

CH: Client Header (optional)

RC: Requested Capabilities
SH: Server Header (optional)
NC: Negotiated Capabilities

Source: Schiller
 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol
• S-Connect.cnf confirms the session establishment and includes the
server header and the negotiated capabilities from the server.

• WSP/B (Browsing) include several procedures to refuse a session or to

abort session establishment.
 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol
• Session may be suspended due to
– the bearer network may not be available due to roaming.
– User switches off the device
– Client suspend the session.

• On resuming
– If server Address (SA) and Client Address (CA) are not the same
(before suspension and on resuming) then it is the responsibility
of the service user to map the addresses.
 WSP/B session suspend/resume
client server
S-SAP S-SAP

S-Suspend.req Suspe S-Suspend.ind

nd PD
U (R)
S-Suspend.ind
(R) WTP Class 0
transaction
R: Reason for disconnection
S-Resume.req
(SA, CA)
~ ~
Resum S-Resume.ind
e PDU
(SA, CA)
S-Resume.res
U
Re ply PD
S-Resume.cnf
WTP Class 2
transaction

Source: Schiller
 WSP/B session termination
client server
S-SAP S-SAP
S-Disconnect.req
(R) Discon S-Disconnect.ind
nect P
S-Disconnect.ind DU (R)
(R) WTP Class 0
transaction

R: Reason for disconnection

Source: Schiller
 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol
• S-MethodInvoke.req
– Used to request an operation to be executed by the server
– CTID : client transaction ID to distinguish between pending
transactions.
– Method M: requested operations at the server
– Request URI: Uniform Resource Identifier i.e., URL’s

• S-MethodResult.ind
– Result is sent back

• The methodPDU can be

– Get PDU
• HTTP/1.1 GET, OPTIONS, HEAD, DELETE and TRACE
– Post PDU
• POST and PUT
 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol
• At sever side responses with S-MethodInvoke.res
– Server confirms the request so that WSP/B does not generate a
new PDU
– STID: server transaction ID to distinguish between pending
transactions.

• S-MethodResult.ind
– Result is sent back
– Parameters are
• S: Response Status
– Is the HTTP/1.1 status code such as
» 404 (indicating server could not be found)
» 200 (indicating everything is ok)
• RH: Response Header
• RB: Response Body
 WSP/B method invoke
client server
S-SAP S-SAP
S-MethodInvoke.req
(CTID, M, RU) Metho S-MethodInvoke.ind
d PDU
(STID, M, RU)
S-MethodInvoke.res
(STID)
S-MethodInvoke.cnf
(CTID) S-MethodResult.req
(STID, S, RH, RB)
S-MethodResult.ind P DU
(CTID, S, RH, RB) Reply

S-MethodResult.res
(CTID) S-MethodResult.cnf
(STID)

WTP Class 2
transaction

CTID: Client Transaction ID M: Method Invoked RU: Request UR

STID: Server Transaction ID S: Response Status RH: Response Header
RB: Response Body
 WSP/B over WTP - method invocation
client initiator responder server
S-SAP TR-SAP TR-SAP S-SAP

S-MethodInvoke.req TR-Invoke.req Invo

ke(M ethod) TR-Invoke.ind S-MethodInvoke.ind

TR-Invoke.res S-MethodInvoke.res
U
S-MethodInvoke.cnf TR-Invoke.cnf Ack PD
TR-Result.req S-MethodResult.req
)
e s u l t(Reply
S-MethodResult.ind TR-Result.ind R

S-MethodResult.res TR-Result.res Ack PD

U
TR-Result.cnf S-MethodResult.cnf

Source: Schiller
 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol

• It does not provide any sequencing between different requests or

responses.

• Some requests may need more time to be responded

WSP/B over WTP - asynchronous, unordered requests
client server
S-SAP S-SAP
S-MethodInvoke_1.req
S-MethodInvoke_2.req
S-MethodInvoke_2.ind
S-MethodInvoke_1.ind
S-MethodInvoke_3.req S-MethodResult_1.req
S-MethodInvoke_3.ind
S-MethodResult_1.ind
S-MethodResult_3.req
S-MethodResult_3.ind
S-MethodResult_2.req
S-MethodInvoke_4.req
S-MethodInvoke_4.ind
S-MethodResult_4.ind S-MethodResult_4.req

S-MethodResult_2.ind

Source: Schiller
 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol
• Push data from the server to the client using S-Push.req
• Class 0 transaction service
• Another variation is class 1.
 WSP/B - confirmed/non-confirmed push
client server
S-SAP S-SAP
S-Push.req
(PH, PB)
S-Push.ind DU
(PH, PB) Push P

WTP Class 0 PH: Push Header

transaction PB: Push Body
SPID: Server Push ID
client server CPID: Client Push ID
S-SAP S-SAP
S-ConfirmedPush.req
(SPID, PH, PB)
S-ConfirmedPush.ind P DU
ush
(CPID, PH, PB) ConfP

S-ConfirmedPush.res
(CPID) S-ConfirmedPush.cnf
(SPID)
WTP Class 1
transaction

Source: Schiller
 WSP - Wireless Session Protocol
• WSP/B connectionless session service
– The connection establishment and release require overhead,
confirm method invocation require overheads
– Which may not be required.

• S-Unit-MethodInvoke.req
– To request an operation on the server.
– TID: Transaction Identifier to distinguish between different users.

• S-Unit-MethodResult.req
– To return the result
• S-Unit-Push.req
– To push the data onto a client.
 WSP/B over WDP
client server
S-Unit-MethodInvoke.req S-SAP S-SAP
(SA, CA, TID, M, RU) Metho S-Unit-MethodInvoke.ind
d PDU
(SA, CA, TID, M, RU)
S-Unit-MethodResult.req
(CA, SA, TID, S, RH, RB)
S-Unit-MethodResult.ind PDU
(CA, SA, TID, S, RH, RB) Reply
S-Unit-Push.req
(CA, SA, PID, PH, PB)
S-Unit-Push.ind DU
(CA, SA, PID, PH, PB) Push P

WDP Unitdata
service

TID: Transaction Identifier

PH: Push Header
PB: Push Body

TIST ,ARAKKUNNAM 135

Source: Schiller