Computer

Communications
Networks
COURSE COSE: CYB 204
CREDIT UNIT: 3

INSTRUCTOR: Y. O. OLATUNDE
COURSE CONTENT
Data vs signalling rates, channel bandwidth and capacity.

Local Area Network Technologies including ETHERNET, Token

Rings. MAC addressing.

Switched vs. shared ETHERNETs, Client-server

communications.

Network layer protocols, including IP, ARP and ICMP.IP

addressing schemes.

Subnetting, Internet routing including protocols used in the

2
Internet such as RIP, OSPF and BGP. TELNET.
QUICK RECAP

3
Digital Transmission
A computer network is designed to
send information from one point to
another.

This information needs to be

converted to either a digital signal or
4
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
We said that data can be either digital or analog.

We also said that signals that represent data can also be digital
or analog.

Let’s we see how we can represent digital data by using digital

signals.

The conversion involves three techniques: line coding, block

5
coding, and scrambling. Line coding is always needed, block
Line Coding
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital
signals.

We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical

images, audio, or video, are stored in computer memory as
sequences of bits.

Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.

At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; 6

Line Coding
Line coding is the process of converting digital data to digital
signals.

We assume that data, in the form of text, numbers, graphical

images, audio, or video, are stored in computer memory as
sequences of bits.

Line coding converts a sequence of bits to a digital signal.

At the sender, digital data are encoded into a digital signal; 7

Signal Element Versus Data
Element
Let us distinguish between a data element and a signal element.

In data communications, our goal is to send data elements.

A data element is the smallest entity that can represent a piece

of information: this is the bit.

In digital data communications, a signal element carries data

elements.
8
A signal element is the shortest unit (timewise) of a digital signal.
Signal Element Versus Data
Element
In other words, data elements are what we need to send; signal
elements are what we can send.

Data elements are being carried; signal elements are the carriers.

We define a ratio r which is the number of data elements carried

by each signal element.

9
Signal Element Versus Data
Element

This
figure
shows
several
situations
with
different
values of
r.

10
DATA VS SIGNALING RATES

11
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
The data rate defines the number of data elements (bits) sent
in 1s. The unit is bits per second (bps).

The signal rate is the number of signal elements sent in 1s.

The unit is the baud.

There are several common terminologies used, the data rate is

sometimes called the bit rate; the signal rate is sometimes
called the pulse rate, the modulation rate, or the baud rate
12
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
One goal in data communications is to
increase the data rate while decreasing the
signal rate.

Increasing the data rate increases the speed

of transmission.

Decreasing the signal rate decreases the

13
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
Let’s consider the vehicle-people analogy, we
need to carry more people in fewer vehicles to
prevent traffic jams.

We have a limited bandwidth in our

transportation system.

Let’s consider the relationship between data

14
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
It also depends on the data pattern.

If we have a data pattern of all 1s or all 0s,

the signal rate may be different from a data
pattern of alternating 0s and 1s.

To derive a formula for the relationship, we

need to define three cases: the worst, best,15
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
The worst case is when we need the
maximum signal rate

The best case is when we need the minimum.

In data communications, we are usually

interested in the average case.
16
Data Rate Versus Signal Rate
We can formulate the relationship between
data rate and signal rate as
S = c * N * (1/r) baud
Where:
 S is the number of signal elements,
 c is the case factor, which varies for each
case,
 N is the data rate (bps), 17
Example

A signal is carrying data in which

one data element is encoded as
one signal element (r = 1). If the bit
rate is 100 kbps, what is the
average value of the baud rate if c
is between 0 and l? 18
Example
We assume that the average value of
c is (1/2).
The baud rate is then S =c * N * (1/r)
S = (1/2) * 100,000 * 1
S = 50,000 baud
S = 50 Kbaud 19
Channel Bandwidth and
Capacity

20
Channel Bandwidth and Capacity
In this section, lets discuss the
relationship between signal
bandwidth, channel bandwidth and
maximum achievable data rate.

21
Bandwidth
Bandwidth refers to the permissible speed of data transfer
between devices within a network. It indicates the
amount of information that can be transmitted across the
network over a certain period of time. The higher the
bandwidth, the faster the data transmission speed.

Bandwidth is typically measured in bits per second (bps)

or its derivatives, such as kilobits per second (Kbps),
megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second
22
Channel Capacity
The maximum quantity of traffic or signal that may pass
over a particular infrastructure channel is channel
capacity.

Types of Communication Channel

1. Simplex channel − Signals can only be sent in one way

using a simple communication connection. As a result, the
channel's complete bandwidth can be used during
23
Channel Capacity (Cont.)
Types of Communication Channel

2. Half-duplex channel − A half-duplex communication

channel can send signals in both directions
simultaneously, but only in one (one at a time).

3. Full-duplex channel − A full-duplex communication link

can simultaneously send signals in both directions.
Communication efficiency is considerably improved by
24
Channel Capacity (Cont.)
For example, the transmission medium is operating in its
maximum capacity then at that time the number of bits it
is holding is called capacity of the transmission medium.

But how can we find the capacity mathematically?

25
Channel Capacity (Cont.)
If the length of the transmission medium is longer than its
capacity will be higher.

It also depends on the area of cross section of the

medium.

If the bandwidth is 1 bps, then every second it can take 1

bit. After every second it will move forward so that next
bit could occupy the space. Therefore, the final time in
26
Channel Capacity (Cont.)
The capacity of the channel depends on two things:

1. Bandwidth
2. Propagation delay

Capacity = bandwidth * propagation delay (in case of half

duplex)

Capacity = 2* bandwidth * propagation delay (in case of

27
NOTE
In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two
contexts.

The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of

frequencies in a composite signal or the range of
frequencies that a channel can pass.

The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the

speed of bit transmission in a channel or link. Often
28
Example
Calculate the capacity of a communication channel with a
bandwidth of 10 MHz and a propagation delay of 2
milliseconds. Assume the communication is operating in
full-duplex mode.

Solution
Using the formula for full-duplex communication channel
capacity:
Capacity = 2×Bandwidth×Propagation Delay
29
6 −3
Channel Capacity (Cont.)
Channel Capacity according to the Shannon-Hartley
theorem considers the signal-to-noise ratio (bits per
second) .
C=W * log2( 1 + SNR) (bits/s)

In this formula:
C is the channel capacity in bits per second.
W is the bandwidth of the channel in hertz (Hz).
SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio, which is a measure of the strength of the
30
Example
The telephone channel has a bandwidth of 3 kHz and a
signal-to-noise ratio exceeding 30 dB (at least they
promise this much). The maximum data rate a modem can
produce for this wireline channel and hope that errors will
not become rampant is the capacity.

C = 3×103 log2(1+103)

C = 29.901 kbps
31
Propagation & Transmission delay

Propagation speed - speed at which a bit travels though

the medium from source to destination.

Transmission speed - the speed at which all the bits in a

message arrive at the destination. (difference in arrival
time of first and last bit)

32
Propagation and Transmission
Delay
Propagation Delay = Distance/Propagation speed

Transmission Delay = Message size/bandwidth bps

Latency = Propagation delay + Transmission delay +

Queueing time + Processing time

33
Example
A network with bandwidth of 10 Mbps can pass only an
average of 12,000 frames per minute with each frame
carrying an average of 10,000 bits. What is the throughput
of this network?

Solution
We can calculate the throughput as

34
Example
What is the propagation time if the distance between the
two points is 12,000 km? Assume the propagation speed
to be 2.4 × 108 m/s in cable.
Solution
We can calculate the propagation time as

The example shows that a bit can go over the Atlantic

Ocean in only 50ms if there is a direct cable between the
35
Local Area Network (LAN)
Technologies

36
LET’S CONNECT

: yusuf.olatunde@uniosun.edu.ng

:
https://www.youtube.com/@ccwitholatunde

: https://www.linkedin.com/in/yusuf-
olatunde