MDI 002: Transnationalism, diaspora and citizenship

Block: Block 2: Transnationalism and Politics of Citizenship

Unit 13 : Diasporic Networks

DIASPORA NETWORK
by Dr. M. Mahalingam
 An immigrant community always maintains
connections with its real or putative homelands after
its settlement in the destination countries. This social
process or phenomenon is popularly known as
‘Diaspora’.
 Diasporas are forcefully or voluntarily dispersed,
displaced and deterritorialized immigrant
communities who live outside their homelands.
 Itwas initially used to refer only to the exile of Jews
from their homeland to various parts of the globe.
 The concept is being used to any kinds of immigrants
who are living outside their origin countries
permanently or temporarily today.
 The formation of the diaspora community may be historical or
contemporary.
 Global diasporas are very diverse in nature and characteristics,
for instance Jewish diaspora, Chinese diaspora, Mexican diaspora,
Tibetan diaspora, Indian diaspora and African diaspora.
 Since diasporas maintain real or psychic connections with their
respective homelands, they are aptly called transnational
communities.
 The advent of globalisation has fostered the transnational aspects
of diasporas more than ever before.
 Globalisation accompanied by the advancement of transport,
communication and information technologies has reinforced and
sustained the national identification as well as the intensification of
transnational practises of diasporas with the real or putative
homeland.
 They maintain socio-economic, cultural and political relationships with
their cohorts in their respective locales or host lands as well as across
the globe by establishing ‘networks’ of different forms and kinds.
 These networks can be formal or informal. Diaspora networks are a
social reality given their diasporic consciousness. With enhanced
economic and social capitals of global diasporas, they have become an
important stakeholder in origin and host countries in the era of
globalisation.
 The growing diasporic triadic social relationships or networks have
socio-economic and political implications in homeland as well as host
land.
 However, it depends upon their socio-economic status and engagement
policy of the host and origin countries.
 The concept ‘diaspora network’ has assumed significance given the
fact of growing international migration in the era of globalisation in
the recent decades
 Let us discuss the phenomenon of diaspora networks, its
nature and characteristics, forms and types and
implications.

OBJECTIVES

 After reading this Unit you will get an understanding of

 The phenomenon of diaspora network and its significance

 The nature and characteristics of diaspora networks

 Implications of diaspora networks

FEATURES OF ‘DIASPORA NETWORK’
 The concept ‘network’ can simply be defined as a web of social
relationships or connections that exist between individual
actors and groups.
 The members of the network will derive benefits from their
participation in their respective networks.
 Diasporas tend to maintain links or bonds among themselves
given their common origin, ethnicity and status in host lands.
 Though they might have integrated well in host lands, they
maintain real and imagined links with their country of origin.
 This inherent nature of dual loyalty of diasporas has led to
various kinds of diaspora networks within the members living
in host and home lands. Hence, diasporas are a source and an
instrument of networks
 Further, the degree of diaspora networks can be determined
through the status of its socio-economic position in host
lands and diaspora engagement policy of homelands.
 Moreover, diaspora networks may be formal or informal.
Diaspora networks are related to socio-economic, cultural,
ethnic and political activities with homelands and co-ethnics
living across the world.
 It can broadly be classified into social and economic
networks. .
 Social networks of diasporas include immigrant/ migrant,
ethnic, religious, family, clan, kinship, and gender.
 Economic networks of diasporas include entrepreneurial,
managerial, industrial and technological networks.
 The following network categories were identified among the
skilled expatriates such as student/scholarly network, local
associations of skilled expatriates, expert pool assistance
through development agency and intellectual/scientific
diaspora networks.
 An advancement of transport and Information and
Communication Technology (ICT) coupled with the advent of
globalisation has strengthened ‘diaspora networks’ with home
and co-ethnics living around the world in the recent decades.
 The phenomenon of transnationalism is an outcome of
diaspora networks spanning across beyond home lands.
 Diaspora networks promote various kinds of flows between
home and host countries and beyond. It is a tapping tool to
channelise the resources of diasporas.
 Diaspora networks reduce the costs of brain drain by
fostering cooperation and sharing knowledge and skills
and business investment.
 It can also be a catalyst for entrepreneurship. It has
converted the brain drain into brain gain and brain
circulation in the era of globalisation.
 Diaspora networks can facilitate trade and investment
links between their home and host countries. Members of
diaspora networks often have a comparative advantage
in providing goods and services given their linkages.
 Diasporas itself are information channels to exchange
information, market intelligence, capital and skills
because of ethnic based networking.
 The networks help the new economic immigrants to
adapt easily in host lands and are important for sharing
information and participating in social and cultural
activities
 In order to strengthen diaspora networks, they
establish various kinds of diaspora organisations in
host lands.
 Apart from trade linkages, cultural assertion and
ethnic identification is feasible because of the existence
of diaspora networks.
 In addition, they also accelerate diaspora engagement
given its network members in home countries and
elsewhere.
 TheDiaspora Network Alliance (DNA)
framework has identified six channels for diaspora
engagement with homelands namely,

 Diaspora Philanthropy,
 Diaspora Volunteerism,
 Diaspora Entrepreneurship,
 Diaspora Capital Markets,
 Diaspora Tourism & Nostalgic Trade,
 Diaspora Advocacy & Diplomacy
 In general, these networks play a pivotal role in
facilitating socio-economic developments of host and
home countries.
 At the same time, given the inherent nature of long-
distance nationalism of diaspora communities, aided by
diaspora networks, they are involved in
 Anti-colonialism,
 Separatism,
 regime change and political participation in
homelands.
 Thus, diaspora networks pave a way for positive and
negative implications on home and host lands.
 DIASPORA NETWORKS: A GLOBAL SCENARIO
Formation of Diaspora Networks and Role of Information and
Communication Technology (ICT)

 International migration has been on the rise since the last few
decades.
 The World Migration Report 2020 states that the number of
international migrants globally in 2019 was 272 million, about 3.5 %
of the world’s population.
 The United States remains the favourite destination country for
international migrants, having 50.7 million international migrants.
 The prevalence of ‘networks’ among the immigrants facilitates
adoption as well as to settle at ease in the destination countries.
 Over a period of time, they become a settled immigrant community
or diaspora community.
 Given their diasporic consciousness, they sustain or maintain
various kinds of flows between host and home countries and
also with co-ethnics living across the world with the assistance
of diaspora networks.
 Diaspora networks have become much wider, denser and
stronger in the light of advancement of transport and
information and communication technology.
 For instance, with the advent of ICT tools like email, discussion
groups, blogs, WhatsApp groups and social networking
platforms like Facebook, Instagram and LinkedIn, the
diaspora networks have further intensified.
 To cite an example, the Overseas Chinese Network (OCN)
website (http://www.overseaschinesenetwork.com) includes
sections for blogs, discussion forums, listings of events and job
opportunities.
 With the expansion of digital infrastructure
across the globe, there is an emergence of digital
diasporas that resulted in intense diaspora
networks for various interests and objectives.
 The proliferation of digital diaspora networks
has closely bound the diaspora communities with
homelands and with their co-ethnics around the
world.
 After theadvancement of ICT, the clout of
diaspora has increased in host and home lands
due to dense or increased network activities.
 Skilled/Knowledge/intellectual/academic/ Scientific Diaspora
Networks
 The growing international migration of high-skilled human
capital from the global South to global North in search of
better opportunities or life chances has led to the depletion of
human resources in the poor and developing countries.
 This social phenomenon is commonly known as ‘brain drain’
by migration scholars.
 Diaspora networks have reduced the phenomenon of brain
drain by sharing or circulating gained knowledge and
experience information to the members of the network in home
countries with the assistance of ICT.
 Thus, it has converted ‘brain drain’ into ‘brain gain’ or brain
circulation or brain bank in the era of globalisation.
 Saxenian’s study highlights the role of
international, ethnic professional networks in
facilitating knowledge transfer or brain
circulation.
 Research by Meyer and Brown (1999) at the
University of Cape Town identifies 41 expatriate
knowledge networks around the world.
 Expatriate knowledge networks have been
established around the world for mobilising highly
skilled expatriates to contribute their skills and
expertise to the development of their country of
origin.
 Expatriate knowledge networks were
classified into five categories:
 Student/scholarly network,
 Local associations of skilled expatriates,
 expert pool assistance through the Transfer of
Knowledge Through Expatriate Nationals
(TOKTEN) programme of the United Nations
Development Programme(UNDP), developing
intellectual/scientific diaspora networks and
intellectual/scientific diaspora networks
 These networks are specifically aimed at facilitating the
transfer of knowledge and expertise between highly skilled
expatriates and their counterparts in their country of origin.
 The classic cases of knowledge diaspora networks namely,
 The Association of Thai Professionals in America and Canada,
 The Philippines Brain Gain Network,
 The Polish Scientists Abroad,
 The Arab Scientists and Technologists Abroad (ASTA)
 The Palestinian Scientists and Technologists Abroad
(PALESTA),
 The Global Korean Network, the Colombian Caldas network
 The South African Network of Skills Abroad (SANSA)
South African Network of Skills Abroad (SANSA): A Case Study
 South African Network of Skills Abroad (SANSA) was set up in
1998 with a joint initiative of the University of Cape Town’s
Science and Technology Policy Research Centre and a leading
French agency, the Institute for Research and Development.
 It was launched to tap the expertise and skills of South African
skilled expatriates living across the globe.
 The objective of SANSA was to establish tie-ups or
collaborations beside skill transfers with highly skilled
expatriates in the fields of science and technology with their
counterparts in South Africa.
 The network has acted as a medium or platform to play a role
in the development of South Africa without having to return
home.
 Thenetwork was formed by accessing the alumni
networks of all major South African academic
universities and technical universities in order to
connect with the skilled South African expatriates
with the researchers, scientists in South Africa.
 SANSA is a non-profit, independent, non-political
entity of highly skilled South Africans who are
involved with the socioeconomic development of
South Africa.
 SANSA plays a pivotal role in making South Africa
emerge as a knowledge based economy.
 In the case of Chinese Diaspora, the following web portals
namely the China Scholar Abroad (www.chisa.edu.cn),
China Overseas Talents (www.chinatalents.gov.cn) and
CAS Overseas Study and Continuing Education
(www.castalents.ac.cn) were founded to share or exchange
the intellectual capital between the Chinese diaspora and
homeland China.
 In fact, the digital knowledge network of Overseas Chinese
professionals, academics and scientists has acted as a
medium to exchange knowledge, information and to carry
out transnational collaborations between the overseas
Chinese community and homeland Chinese.
 The role of the Chinese knowledge diaspora is undeniable
for the growth and development of the
Role of Diaspora networks in Entrepreneurship and International
Business and Trade:

 Diaspora networks facilitate international business and trade,

entrepreneurship and ethnic business. Diasporas have acted as
mediators or facilitators of international trade flows. They can
forge trade and investment links with ease between their home
and host countries.
 Direct Diaspora Investment (DDI) has more advantages than
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) because of the presence of
network members who would be facilitators or channels for the
flow of information, market intelligence, capital and skills.
 Further, given their emotional and psychic connection, they will
not backtrack their investments at the time of economic
downturn.
 Saxenxian’s study found that Taiwan’s (China) science-based industrial
park in Hschinchu had forty per cent of the companies led by returned
emigrants. In prevalence of mutual trust and aid, the immigrant
associations or networks facilitated access to capital, marketing skills, and
markets for Taiwanese start-ups.
 The direct investment of the Chinese Diaspora has led to a remarkable
investment boom over the past two decades.
 An estimate of 70 percent of foreign investment was provided by the
Chinese Diaspora.
 Firstly, the important stimulus for investment of the Chinese diaspora was
its quest to connect with the homeland.
 Secondly, as the Non-Chinese investors are at times upset over the
Chinese language, cultural and legal barriers, the Chinese diaspora has
an advantage to do business with China because of its entrepreneurial
experience, specialised knowledge, and its wider networks
 Given the strong ethnic networks of the Chinese diaspora spanning
across the globe, Chinese entrepreneurs were amongst the most
significant sources of foreign investment in the Philippines, Thailand,
and Vietnam.

 During the post-World War period, the Chinese diaspora with the
construction of a “bamboo network” extending from Hong Kong,
Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Taiwan and
Thailand to one another and to China diversified their economic
activities from traditional trading and manufacturing, then in high-
tech and finance.

 The South African Diaspora Network was launched in 2001 to

develop knowledge and entrepreneurial connections between local
South African firms and South African diaspora in the United
Kingdom.
 Gillespie and others (1999) surveyed some 572 U.S.–
based first- and second-generation immigrants
belonging to the investment-deficient economies of
Armenia, Cuba, the Islamic Republic of Iran, and
the West Bank and Gaza.
 Countries like China, India, South Africa, Mexico
and other developing economies in Asian and African
regions have witnessed the investment booms from
their respective diasporas.
 Diaspora networks have accelerated international
business and trade, entrepreneurship and ethnic
business due to the transition of the global economy
in the era of globalisation.
 Apart from positive impacts, diaspora networks have
accelerated the long-distance nationalism of the dispersed
diaspora community.
 It facilitated crowd funding by establishing diaspora
organizations in the host lands in order to fund militant,
insurgency movements and for the growth of global terrorism.

 Global diasporas have fought against multinational non-

democratic empires around the world. For instance, the
Greek, the Polish, Irish and Slovak diasporas in the
nineteenth and twentieth century’s, or the communities of
Russian Socialists throughout Western Europe in the
beginning of the twentieth century supported and were
involved in creating democratic nation states.
 After the end of Cold war, global diasporas have emerged as
important actors and supporters of civil insurgencies,
militant movements and terrorism around the world.
 The Palestinian, Irish, and Sri Lankan Tamil diasporas have
played a substantial role in sustaining insurgencies and civil
war in their respective homelands.
 The Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) received substantial
funding from the Albanian diaspora in the West.
 It is very important to note that diaspora networks not only
promote ethnic nationalism but also civic nationalism by
acting as bridges, mediators, facilitators, lobbies and
advocacy groups for ensuring the primacy of national
security and economic interests of their respective homelands.
 The formation of diaspora network groups such as
the Congressional Caucus on India and Friends of
India Caucus in the Senate have paved the way for
building positive perceptions and growing optimism
in India.

 Indian-American lobbyists played a pivotal role in

the historic passage of the 2006 “Hyde Amendment”
to the Atomic Energy Cooperation Act and the 2008
Congressional approval of the US-India 123
Agreement enabling US-India cooperation in civilian
nuclear-energy trade.
 DIASPORA NETWORKS AND THE INDIAN DIASPORA
Profile of Indian Diaspora

 Indian Diaspora has assumed a great significance among the

global diasporas given its volume, vast spread and changing
profile in host lands.
 Given the volume and economic clout of the Indian diaspora in
recent times, it acted as mediators, and facilitators of
international trade and investment.
 The Indian entrepreneurs, technocrats and management
consultants have a high profile in the global economic order.
 The Indian diaspora has maintained its cultural and economic
ties with India through informal and formal networks at
different points of time.
 As stated earlier, the profile of the Indian diaspora has
changed significantly in various locations of the world.
 In the case of the United Kingdom, the Indian diaspora is
represented significantly in various businesses and high-
skilled occupations such as information technology (IT) and
medicine.
 According to an estimate, there were more than 300
influential, non-resident Indian businesspeople and 150
other very rich and prominent Indians in the United
Kingdom, including Gulu Lalvani (electronics industry),
Manubhai Madhvani (sugar industry), Lakshmi Mittal
(iron and steel industry), Lord Swaraj Paul (manufacturing
and supply of steel and engineering products), and
Jasminder Singh (hotel industry).
 In the Gulf region, the skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled workers
are playing a vital role for the growth and development of the Gulf
region.
 Given their lack of citizenship status despite staying longer, they tend
to send their earnings in the form of remittances to their families
back home and make investments in various sectors of the economy.
 In other developed countries, particularly Canada and the United
States, Indians have been very successful in most knowledge or
white-collar professions, including engineering, IT, medicine,
finance, business administration and accounting.
 The Indian diaspora occupies key positions in the various sectors of
the US economy.
 A substantial number of executives in midsize and large companies
were drawn from the Indian community. Around 15 percent of IT
start-ups were created by Indians.
The Skilled Indian Diaspora Networks and its implications for India

 Indian software professionals were “reputation enhancers” (Kapur

2010) which enabled them to lobby in the interests of India and
outsource jobs.
 Further, the Indian community of U.S has played the role of
“reputational intermediaries” (ibid) to boost the confidence of
Multinational companies for getting their investments to India.
 Companies like Texas Instruments, Hewlett Packard and General
Electric were chief among those who utilised the services of their
employees of Indian origin to set up subsidiaries in India in the
1980s.
 The diaspora networks of Indian diaspora have accelerated the
development of IT and Business Processing Office (BPO) industry
and have created ‘brand name’ for India in the global economy.
 Indian doctors and nurses have earned a good
reputation in the health sector of different parts of
the globe especially United Kingdom, United States
and Gulf region.

 They transferred their skills and expertise for

setting up world class corporate hospitals and super
speciality healthcare systems in India. Escorts,
Medicity, Apollo and L.V.Prasad Eye institute of
Hyderabad are a few examples.
 Indian Diaspora Network Organisations and its impact on India

 Diaspora associations and networks have played an important role in

the process of transfer of knowledge, skills and expertise for the
promotion of business and trade, entrepreneurship and collaboration
for various activities.

 The American Association of Physicians of Indian Origin (AAPI).

 The American Association of Physicians from India,
 The Association of Indian Neurologists.
 The Association of Asian Indians in Ophthalmology in the United
States.
 The Scientists and Technologists of Indian Origin (STIO)
 The formation of non-profit associations, such as The Indus Entrepreneurs (TiE) and
the Silicon Indian Professional Association were set up to connect up or to tap for the
promotion of business and trade.

 In the Gulf region there are various diaspora organisations which are engaged in
networking for varied interests. For instance, the Indian Doctors, Engineers, Architects
and Accountants Society (IDEAAS) based in Saudi Arabia are the world’s largest
network of Indian professionals abroad.

 Diaspora organisations like the Indo- American Charity Fund, the India Disaster Relief
Fund and the Indian Doctor’s Club Charity Fund have played a very important role in
philanthropic activities with the help of local civil society groups.
 Apart from these positive initiatives, a section of the Indian diaspora is also involved in
separatism, political conflicts and fundamentalism through their established networks
in India.
 For instance, Khalistan Movement of Sikh Diaspora, Hindu and Muslim
fundamentalism and Kashmir political conflict were triggered by the respective Indian
diaspora groups by funding and transfer of radical ideas to their networks in India.

 There are socio-cultural diaspora organisations to promote their Indian cultural, caste,
religious and regional interests. These organisations have established connections with
homeland bound organisations for its assertion of ethnic and cultural identities.

 For instance, the Hindu Council of UK has strong ties with India-based Hindu
religious organisations to promote Hindu identity in the United Kingdom.
Conclusion:
 Diasporas are sources of networks. Diaspora
networks have become intense and have expanded
wider than ever before because of an advancement of
transport, information and communication
technology in the era of globalisation.
 The formation of diaspora networks is a global
reality today as we live in an interconnected world.
 Further, Diaspora networks have mitigated brain
drain phenomena and made it possible to circulate
ideas and information to a vast network.
 Diaspora networks are transnational in nature due to
their expanded ties spread across more than one country.
 Moreover, it has not only promoted international
business and trade, entrepreneurship and knowledge
transfer, but also facilitated cultural assertion and ethnic
identification.
 Besides, it has enhanced emotional and psychic
connections with homeland and co-ethnics living across
the world.
 With the rise of racism, xenophobia and majoritarian
nationalism in the recent years, diaspora networks are
imperative to leverage upon to sustain oneself in alien
lands.
 As discussed above, it has positive and
negative implications for home and host
countries.
 As diasporas are endowed with enhanced
social and cultural capital, they have emerged
as third actors in the comity of nations.
 Moreover, they are a viable means for
diaspora engagement. Generally, diaspora
networks have provided an impetus to socio-
economic growth and development of home
and host countries in contemporary times.
THANK YOU