Module 3:

Strategies for Data

Collection
 OBJECTIVES
After going through this module, you are expected
to:
1. Collects data through observation and
interviews. CS_RS11IVd-f-1
2. Infers and explain patterns and themes from
data. CS_RS11IVd-f-2
3. Relates the findings with pertinent literature.
CS_RS11IVd-f-3
Lesson 1: Collecting Data Through Observation
and Interviews
OBSERVATION AS A METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA
Observation is one of the means of collecting data in
qualitative research. As a method, data can be obtained by
watching and listening purposively to people’s behavior
(Almeida et al. 2016, 96). According to Kawulich (2012),
observation is a primary tool that helps you document what
is happening in a particular research setting. Further, she
noted that the researcher’s position in the research setting is
taken into consideration as this will affect the quality of data
that will be collected, the researcher’s relationship with the
participants and the validity of the study.
The two major types of observation are:
1) Participant Observation. This type of observation is
characterized by the researcher’s interaction or participation
with participants and become part of their community
(Driscoll 2011, 160). The researcher acts as observer and
participant at the same time (Kawulich 2012).
2) Direct Observation. In this kind of observation, the
researcher does not participate with the activities of the
group under study. S/He acts as a passive observer (Almeida
et al. 2016, 96) and records the participants’ behavior.
 Types of Observational Tools
1) Observation Guide It helps to maintain the observer’s focus
while also giving the observer scope to reflect on the context
associated with each site. The purpose of this observation tool is
to:
o reminds the observer of the key points of observation as well as
the topics of interest associated with each; and
o acts as the motivation for a reflexive exercise in which the
observer can reflect on his/her own relationship and contribution
to the observed at any moment in time (e.g., how the observer was
affected by the observations) (Roller and Lavrakas 2015).
2) Observation Grid
The grid is like the guide in that, it helps remind the
observer of the events and issues of most import;
however, unlike the guide, the observation grid is a
spreadsheet or log of sorts that enables the observer
to record (and record his reflections of) observable
events in relationship to the constructs of interest.
The grid might show, for instance, the relevant
constructs or research issues as column headings
and the specific foci of observation as rows.
When conducting observation in the research setting,
a researcher may play the one of the following:
1) Complete Participant. As the term denotes, the
researcher is part of the group under study and
participates in the group members’ activities.
However, the participants are not aware that they are
being observed and studied.
2) Participant as Observer. Here, the researcher is still
part of the group under study and participates in the
group members’ activities. The participants are fully
aware that they are being observed and studied.
3) Observer as Participant. The researcher is not
part of the group under study but still participates
in the group members’ activities. The participants
under study are aware of the research and its
objectives.
4) Complete Observer. Here, the researcher is not
part of the group under study and does not take
part of their activities. The participants are not also
aware that they are being observed and studied.
 Advantages of Observation
1) It enables a researcher to access things in the research
setting that may not seen by the general public (Kawulich
2012).
2) It allows the researcher to give rich and detailed
description of the social setting by means of the field notes
(Kawulich 2012).
3) It is one of the simplest ways to collect data and does not
require too much technical knowledge (Bhasin 2020).
4) It can be done with or without the participants’ knowledge.
Disadvantages of Observation

1) There is a chance of higher observer bias (Bhasin 2020).

2) Participants’ behavior may change because of the presence of
the researcher, thus affecting the data to be obtained
(Educational Research Techniques 2015).
3) It requires longer time frame to obtain deeper understanding of
the research participants.
4) There may be an issue of non-conformity to informed consent.
5) Guidelines in Observation
 Here are some guidelines that will help you when doing observation:

1) Be ready with your observation guide and research tools such as

audio-video recorder, camera, and notebook.
2) Focus your observation on the research problems that you are
trying to answer.
3) Take notes or pictures so that you can use them in giving detailed
analysis.
4) Allot ample time in your observation to have a deeper
understanding of the subjects you are observing.
5) Observe keenly. What you think about what you observe may be
opposite to what is really happening.
6) Ask informal questions from the participants for further
 Becoming a skilled observer includes…
• Learning to pay attention, see what there is to see, and hear
what there is to hear.
• Practice in writing descriptively.
• Acquiring discipline in recording notes.
• Knowing how to separate detail from trivia.
• Using rigorous methods to validate and triangulate
observations.
• Reporting the strengths and limitations of one’s own
perspective.
 Interview

The research interview has been defined as ‘a two-person

conversation initiated by the interviewer for the specific purpose
of obtaining research-relevant information and content specified
by research objectives of systematic description, prediction, or
explanation. It involves the gathering of data through direct verbal
interaction between individuals. It is questioning in the verbal
form. As a research tool, interview is different from general
interviewing in regard to preparation, construction and execution.
It is controlled by the researcher to avoid any biasness and
distortion. In the research interview, the interviewer asks specific
questions pertaining to research objectives and the respondent
answers appropriately.
There are three main kinds of interview that may be used
specifically as research tools:
1) Structured Interview. The structured interview is one in which
the content and procedures are organized in advance. This means
that the sequence and wording of the questions are determined by
means of a schedule and the interviewer is left little freedom to
make modifications. The interviewer asks a predetermined set of
questions which are arranged in chronological order. The
interviewee answers each question from a list of options.
2) Semi-structured Interview. Here, the interviewer asks a predetermined set
of questions. There is no list of options. The interviewee can answer the
questions in his/her own words. Follow-up questions can be asked by the
interviewer for clarifications.
3) Unstructured Interview. The unstructured interview is an open situation,
having greater flexibility and freedom. The research purposes govern the
questions asked, their content, sequence and wording are entirely in the
hands of the interviewer. There is no predetermined set of questions, no list
of options, no specific procedures. The interviewer asks questions on the
context of the study. The interviewee can answer freely and spontaneously.
The interviewer can ask follow-up questions for clarification and for more
in-depth information.
 Purposes of the interview
As a distinctive research technique, the interview may serve three purposes.
1) First, it may be used as the principal means of gathering information having
direct bearing on the research objectives.
2) Second, it may be used to test hypotheses or to suggest new ones; or as an
explanatory device to help identify variables and relationships.
3) Third, the interview may be used in conjunction with other methods in a
research undertaking. In this connection, Kerlinger (1970) suggests that it might
be used to follow up unexpected results, for example, or to validate other
methods, or to go deeper into the motivations of respondents and their reasons
for responding as they do.
 Advantages of Interview
1) The researcher has the opportunity to ask questions directly to the
participants of the study.
2) It can provide more in-depth information as the researcher is able to raise
follow-up questions to clarify or explore a point.
3) It can supplement information gained from observation, especially those
that are non-verbal in nature.
4) The researcher can explain the questions to the participants.
5) It has a wider application since in can be done with younger to older type
of population.
Disadvantages of Interview
1) It can be time consuming for the researcher and the
interviewee.
2) It requires the researcher to arrange the time and
place of interview.
3) A limited number of people can be interviewed due to
time restrictions.
4) The data obtained from limited number of participants
may not reflect the views of a wider population.
 Interview Protocol
An interview protocol is more than a list of interview questions; it
also extends to the procedural level of interviewing and includes a
script of what you will say before the interview, script for what you
will say at the conclusion of the interview, prompts for the
interviewer to collect informed consent, and prompts to remind the
interviewer the information that she or he is interested in
collecting. Interview protocols become not only a set of questions,
but also a procedural guide for directing a new qualitative
researcher through the interview process.
Writing Successful Interview Protocols
1) Pick a topic that is interesting to you.
2) Research should guide your questions.
3) Use a script for the beginning and end of your
interview.
4) Questions should be open ended.
5) Start with the basics.
6) Begin with easy to answer questions and move
towards ones that are more difficult or controversial.
 Writing Successful Interview Protocols
7) The phrase “tell me about…”is great way to start a question.
8) Write big, expansive questions.
9) Use prompts.
10) Be willing to make “on the spot” revisions to your interview protocol.
11) Do not make the interview too long.
12) Practice with a friend.
13) Make sure that you have set up a second shorter interview to help you clarify
14) If needed, clear your project with your school’s Institutional Research Board
(IRB).
Tips for the Interview
1) Start with your script. You developed the script so that you do not
inadvertently neglect sharing important information with your
interviewee. While you do not need to read the script word for word, it
is important that you have it in front of you and you follow it carefully.
2) Collect consent. Collecting consent should be a part of your
beginning script. Do not proceed with your interview without collecting
it. Give your participant plenty of time to read through the form and
ask as many questions about consent as she or he needs to ask.
3) Use some type of recording device and only take brief notes so you
can maintain eye contact with your interviewee.
4) Arrange to interview your respondent in a quiet, semi-private place.
5) Be sure that both you and the interviewee block off
plenty of uninterrupted time for the interview.
6) Have genuine care, concern, and interest for the
person you are interviewing.
7) Use basic counseling skills to help your interviewees
feel heard.
8) Keep it focused.
9) LISTEN! LISTEN! LISTEN! Seriously, close your
mouth and listen!
10) End with your script.
Inferring Patterns and Themes from
Data in Research
What is Coding?
Coding is the process of analyzing the data and searching
for essential information that answers the research
questions. Another definition of coding says that it is a
process of filtering the data. These essential words are
marked or labeled or coded. They are considered essential
if they occur or have been mentioned several times by the
informants.
Two types of codes in qualitative research:
1) PRESET are codes that have been identified prior to
analysis. It is also called the deductive approach
wherein the codes/themes were determined
beforehand, either from related theories or existing
knowledge
2) EMERGENT CODES are those that show up during
analysis. It is also referred to as inductive approach
where the data is the one that determine the
codes/themes.
What is collating?

Collating on the other hand is, your way of

bringing together the coded data. Giving
the data an orderly appearance is putting
them in a graph, specifically a table of
responses.
PATTERNS AND THEMES

Patterns and themes are words or phrases that

collectively describe the experience or thoughts of
every participant. These words and phrases
become themes because they appear on several
occasions and are mentioned by many
participants. They represent broad categories of
information.
In order to identify themes, qualitative researchers use
codes. Just like what is written above, these codes are
simply “labels” that help qualitative researchers identify
similar experiences or thoughts.
Codes that are grouped together are themes. These are
the words or phrases that will manifest in the interview
transcript and researchers during analysis. Qualitative
researchers should be able to identify and locate them.
Hence, these words or phrases that describe participants’
experiences and thoughts should be coded accordingly for
easy reference and classification when interpreting the
results.
Below are the 5-step process to analyze your data:
1) Prepare and organize your data. Make sure
that you have the transcript with you, collect
all the notes you have taken, documents and
other materials needed. Do not forget the
sources.
2) Review and explore the data. Read and
understand each of those documents and
notes.
Below are the 5-step process to analyze your data:
3) Create initial codes. While you are at the reading
mode, this would also be the time to generate codes.
4) Review those codes and revise or combine into themes.
After reading and coding all the materials, identify
recurring themes, language, opinions, and beliefs.
5) Present themes in a cohesive manner. Lay these
themes consistently and taking into consideration the
audience, and the goals of your research. The findings
should address each theme in turn and refer to your
statement of the problem.