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    DDBS Lec1

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    DDBS Lec1

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    DDBS Lec1

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    CSE 607

    Distributed Database

    Source:
    1. Principles of Distributed Database Systems
    By Tanner Ozsu, Patric Valdureitz
    2. Slides available
    Survey of advanced topics in Database Systems

    • By 1998, centralized database managers (DBMSs) would be an “antique


    curiosity” and most organizations would move towards distributed database
    managers. Distribution was slowly starting and “client/server” had just started.

    • These systems were generally multiple client/single server systems in which the
    distribution was mostly in terms of functionality, not data. If multiple servers
    were used, clients were responsible for managing the connections to these
    servers.

    • Transparency of access was not widely supported, and each client had to “know”
    the location of the required data. The distribution of data among multiple servers
    was very primitive, systems did not support fragmentation or replication of data.

    • Systems of the time were “homogeneous” in that each system could manage
    only data that were stored in its own database, with no linkage to other
    repositories.
    • Today’s client/server systems provide significant transparency in accessing data
    from multiple servers, support distributed transactions to facilitate transparency,
    and execute queries over (horizontally) fragmented data.

    • Further, new systems implement both synchronous and asynchronous


    replication protocols, and many vendors have introduced gateways to access
    other databases.

    • Significant achievements have taken place in the development and deployment


    of parallel database servers.

    • Object database managers have entered the marketplace and have found a
    niche market in some classes of applications which are inherently distributed.
    Distributed Database System
    Distributed database system (DDBS) technology:
    It is one of the major recent developments in the database systems area.
    It is the union of what appear to be two diametrically opposed approaches to data
    processing:
    1. Database system and
    2. Computer network technologies.
    One of the major motivations behind the use of database systems is the desire to
    integrate the operational data of an enterprise and to provide centralized, thus
    controlled access to that data.

    The technology of computer networks promotes a mode of work that goes against all
    centralization efforts.
    The most important objective of the database technology is integration, not centralization.
    It is possible to achieve integration without centralization, and that is exactly what the DDB
    technology attempts to achieve.
    Distributed Data Processing
    Distributed computing system: It is a number of autonomous processing elements
    (not necessarily homogeneous) that are interconnected by a computer network and
    that cooperate in performing their assigned tasks. The “processing element” is a
    computing device that can execute a program on its own.

    What is being distributed?


    1. Processing logic: Processing logic or processing elements are distributed.

    2. Function: Various functions of a computer system could be delegated to various


    pieces of hardware or software.

    3. Data: Data used by a number of applications may be distributed to a number of


    processing sites.

    4. Control: The control of the execution of various tasks might be distributed


    instead of being performed by one computer system.
    Why do we distribute at all?

    Distributed processing better corresponds to the organizational structure of today’s


    widely distributed enterprises, and that such a system is more reliable and more
    responsive.

    Many of the current applications of computer technology are inherently distributed.


    Electronic commerce over the internet, multimedia applications such as
    news-on-demand, manufacturing control systems are all examples of such applications.

    The fundamental reason behind distributed processing is to be better able to solve


    the big and complicated problems simply by dividing them into smaller pieces
    (using a variation of the divide-and-conquer rule) and assigning them to
    different software groups.
    Advantages
    1. Distributed computing provides an economical method of harnessing more
    computing power by employing multiple processing elements optimally.
    2. By attacking these problems in smaller groups working more or less
    autonomously, it might be possible to discipline the cost of software
    development.

    Distributed Database System

    Distributed database: It is a collection of multiple, logically interrelated


    databases distributed over a computer network.

    Distributed database management system (Distributed DBMS): A distributed


    DBMS is defined as the software system that permits the management of the
    DDBS and makes the distribution transparent to the users.

    Fig. 1.6: Central database on a network (Not a DDBS)

    Fig. 1.7: DDBS environment


    What is a Distributed Database System?

    • A distributed database System is a collection of databases which are distributed


    over different computers of a computer network.

    • Each site has autonomous processing capability and can perform local applications.

    • Each site also participates in the execution of at least one global application which
    requires accessing data at several sites.

    Database 1
    Database 3
    Communication Network
    Server 1
    Server 3

    Database 2

    Server 2
    Promises of DDBSs

    1) Transparent management of distributed and replicated data


    Transparency refers to separation of the higher level semantics of a system from
    lower level implementation issues. A transparent system hides the
    implementation details from users.
    • Consider an engineering firm that has offices in Boston, Edmonton, Paris, and
    San Francisco. They run projects at each of these sites and would like to maintain
    a database of their employees, the projects and other related data.
    - Assuming that the database is relational, we need the following relations:
    EMP(ENO, ENAME, TITLE)
    PROJ(PNO, PNAME, BUDGET)
    PAY(TITLE, SAL)
    ASG(ENO, PNO, DUR, RESP)

    - For a DDBS, to localize each data such that data about the employees in
    Edmonton office are stored in Edmonton, those in the Boston office are stored in
    Boston, and so forth. The same applies to the project and salary information.
     We partition each of the relations and store each partition at a different
    site. This is known as fragmentation. It may be preferable to duplicate
    some of this data at other sites for performance and reliability reasons. The
    result is a distributed database which is fragmented and replicated.

    Fig. 1.5: A distributed application

    2) Reliability through distributed transactions


     Distributed DBMS are intended to improve reliability since they have
    replicated components and thereby, eliminate single points of failure.
     The failure of a single site or the failure of a communication link which
    makes one or more sites unreachable, is not sufficient to bring down the
    entire system.
    Distributed DBMS Environment
    Example
    Transparent Access
    3) Improved Performance
    1. A DDBMS fragments the conceptual database, enabling data to be stored
    in close proximity to its points of use (data localization).
    • Since each site handles only a portion of the database, contention
    for CPU and I/O services is not as severe as for centralized databases
    • Localization reduces remote access
    2. The inherent parallelism of distributed systems may be exploited for inter-
    query and intra-query parallelism.
    • Inter-query parallelism results from the ability to execute multiple
    queries at the same time.
    • On the other hand, intra-query parallelism is achieved by breaking
    up a single query into a number of subqueries each of which is
    executed at a different site, accessing a different part of the
    distributed database.
    Potential Problems
    • Complexity: More complex than centralized database management ones.
    • Cost: Distributed systems require additional hardware (communication
    mechanisms etc.), thus have increased hardware costs.
    • Distribution of control: Distribution creates problems of synchronization and
    coordination.
    • Security: In a distributed database system, a network is involved which is a
    medium that has its own security requirements. Thus, the security problems in
    distributed database systems are by nature more complicated than in
    centralized ones.
    Problem Areas

    1. Distributed database design


    2. Distributed query processing
    3. Distributed concurrency control
    4. Distributed directory management
    5. Distributed deadlock management
    6. Reliability of distributed DBMS
    7. Operating system support
    8. Heterogeneous databases
    9. Relationship among problems
    Distributed Database Design

    To place the database and applications across different sites, there are two alternatives:
    i) Partitioned (or non-replicated) and
    ii) Replicated.

    Partitioned scheme: Database is divided into a number of disjoint partitions each of which is
    placed at a different site.

    Replicated scheme: It can be fully replicated where the entire database is stored at each site, or
    partially replicated where each partition of the database is stored at more than one site but not at
    all the sites.

    Two fundamental design issues are


    fragmentation- the separation of the database into partitions called fragments, and distribution-
    the optimum distribution of the database.
    Distributed Query Processing

     Query processing deals with designing algorithms that analyze queries and
    convert them into a series of data manipulation operations. The problem is
    how to decide on a strategy for executing each query over the network in the
    most cost-effective way.
     The objective is to optimize where the inherent parallelism is used to improve
    the performance of executing the transaction.

    Distributed Directory Management


    • A directory contains information (such as descriptions and locations) about data
    items in the database.
    • A directory may be global to the entire DDBS or local to each site; it can be
    centralized at one site or distributed over several sites.
    Distributed Concurrency Control
    • Concurrency control involves the synchronization of accesses to the distributed
    database, such that the integrity of the database is maintained.
    • We have to worry about both the integrity of a single database, and about the
    consistency of multiple copies of the database (mutual consistency).
    • Two solution classes are pessimistic and optimistic. In pessimistic, synchronizing
    the execution of user requests before the execution starts. In optimistic,
    executing the requests and then checking if the execution compromised the
    consistency of the database.
    • Locking can be used in both cases. It is based on the mutual exclusion of accesses
    to data items. Timestamping ensures the execution of the transactions in some
    order.

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