UNIT - III

D.C. Machines
 D.C. GENERATORS

• DC Generator ?
• Principle of operation.
• Action of Commutator.
• Constructional details of DC Machine.
• EMF Equation (problems).
• Types of DC generators (problems)
• D.C. Generator Characteristics.
• Applications of D.C Generators.
• Total losses in a D.C Machine and Efficiency (not in syllabus).
DC Generator
D.C. GENERATORS PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

 DC generator converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy. When a conductor move in a magnetic
field in such a way conductors cuts across a magnetic flux
of lines an dynamically induced e.m.f. produces in a
generator(conductor) and it is defined by faradays law of
electromagnetic induction which causes current to flow in
the load if circuit is closed.
 Fleming's Right Hand Rule

E.M.F

• The Thumb represents the direction of Motion

of the conductor.
• The First finger (four finger) represents Field.
• The Second finger (Middle finger) represents
Current
Application Of Fleming's Right Hand Rule
The following are the basic requirements to be
satisfied for generation of E.M.F
1.A uniform Magnetic field
2.A System of conductors
3.Relative motion between the magnetic field and conductors

• Magnetic field :-
Permanent Magnet
(or)
Electro Magnet (practical)
• Conductor :- Copper (or) Aluminum bars placed in
slots cut around the periphery of cylindrical rotor
• Relative motion:-
By Prime Mover
Turbine
I.C Engine (Internal combustion)
Basic Generator WORKING
Armature at zero degrees
Armature at 90 degrees
Armature at 180 degrees
Armature at 270 degrees
Armature at 360 degrees
Simple Loop Generator
With Slip Ring
Simple Loop Generator
With Split Ring
Current Undergoing Periodic Reversals Is Known As
Alternating Current. For Making The Flow Of Current Uni-
directional In The External Circuit, The Slip-rings Are
Replaced By Split-rings.

Split-rings Are Made Out Of A Conducting Cylinder

Which Is Cut Into Two Halves Or Segments Insulated
From Each Other By A Thin Sheet Af Mica Or Some Other
Insulating Material. Coil Ends Are Joined To These
Segments On Which Rest The Copper Or Carbon
Brushes.
Dc generator With Split Ring
Unidirectional current wave shape

Resultant current wave shape when number of

conductors used ln Armature core
 Constructional Parts Of DC Machine
 Yoke
 Stator ( Field winding)
 Rotor (Armature winding)
 Commutator
 Brushes
 Shaft
 Bearings
Construction details of DC generator
Cross section view of dc machine

shaft

S
Main parts of a 4-pole d. c machine
Practical Dc Machine
 Yoke
- Acts as frame of the machine
- Mechanical support
- low reluctance for magnetic flux
- High Permeability
-- For Small machines -- Cast iron—low cost
-- For Large Machines -- Cast Steel (Rolled steel)

Large DC machine Small DC machine

 Pole Cores And Pole Shoes
a) Pole core (Pole body) :---Carry the field coils.
--Rectangle Cross sections.
-- Laminated to reduce heat losses.
--Fitted to yoke through bolts.
b) Pole shoe:- i)They spread out the flux in the air gap and
also, being of larger cross-section, reduce the reluctance of the
magnetic path. ii) They support the exciting coils (or field coils)
as shown below

Pole core & Pole shoe are laminated of annealed steel

(Of thickness of 1mm to 0.25 mm)
c) Field coils (Magnetizing coils): Provide excitation
 Number of poles depends speed of armature on and the
output for which the machine designed.
 Frame to used for design for exciting coils.
Different types of fields
i) Separately Exciting
ii) Self Exciting
Armature Core
a) Armature core :-
 To support armature windings.
 To rotate conductors in a magnetic field.
 It is cylindrical or drum shaped.
 Made of high permeability silicon steel.
Laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
High grade silicon steel used to reduce
i) Hysteresis loss
ii) Eddy current loss
 Ventilating ducts are provided to dissipate heat to
dissipate heat generated by above losses.

b) Armature Winding:-
 Main flux cuts armature and hence E.M.F is induced.
 Winding made of Copper (or) Aluminum.
 Windings are insulated each other.
 Bearings and Brushes
Brushes :-
Carbon, Carbon graphite, copper used to Collects current
from commutation (in case of Generator)

Shaft and bearings:-

Shaft-- Mechanical link between prime over and
armature
Bearings– For free rotation
DC Machine Construction
Rotor of a dc machine
Cutaway view of a dc machine
Generated EMF or EMF Equation of a generator

Let  = flux/pole in Weber

Z =Total number of armature conductors
=No. of slot × No. of conductors/slot
P= No. of generator poles
A =No. of parallel paths in armature
N= Armature rotation in revolutions per minute (r. p. m)
E= e.m.f induced in armature
Generated e.m.f Eg= e.m.f generated in paths i.e E
Average e.m.f generated/conductor = d  volt
dt
Now, flux cut/conductor in one revolution d  = P wb
 No. of revolutions/sec=N/ 60
Time for one revolution , dt= 60 /N sec
According to Faraday’s Law of electro magnetic induction
E.M.F generated/conductor = d= PN volts
dt 60
No. of conductors in one parallel path= Z / A

E.M.F generated/path=  PN × Z Volts

60 A
Generate E.M.F, Eg= Z N × P Volts
60 A
For
i) Wave winding A = 2
ii) Lap winding A = P
 Generators

D.C Generators A.C Generators

(Alternators)
Generators are usually classified according to the way in which their
fields are excited. Generators may be divided into (a) separately-
excited generators and (b) self-excited generators.

(a) Separately-excited generators are those whose field magnets

are energized from an independent external source of dc current.

(b) Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are

energized by the current produced by the generators themselves. There
are three types of self-excited generators named according to the
manner in which their field coils (or windings) are connected to the
armature.
Clasification of Generators
Separately excited generators

Ia=IL
E=Vt+ IaRa +BCD
shunt wound
L

VL
G
 series wound

L
VL
G
 compound wound
long shunt short shunt
L
L

VL
G
VL G

L L
 ms
bl e
Pr o
f or
me
Ti
DC MOTORS
DC Motor
DC MOTORS
• An Electric Motor is a Machine Which Converts
Electric Energy Into Mechanical Energy.
• From the Fig above When a Current Carrying
Conductor is Placed in a Magnetic Field , It
Experiences A Mechanical Force Whose
Direction is given by Fleming's Left Hand Rule
and Whose Magnitude is given by F=BIL.
• There is no Basic Difference Between DC
Generator and Motor, In fact Same Machine Can
Be Used For Generator And Motor.
 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

The forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field.

The middle finger points in the direction of the current in the
wire.
Thumb - torque or force.
Principle of Motor
• Consider a coil in a magnetic field of flux density B .
When the two ends of the coil are connected across a DC
voltage source, current I flows through it. A force is
exerted on the coil as a result of the interaction of
magnetic field and electric current. The force on the two
sides of the coil is such that the coil starts to move in the
direction of force.

• In an actual DC motor, several such coils are wound on

the rotor, all of which experience force, resulting in
rotation. The greater the current in the wire, or the
greater the magnetic field, the faster the wire moves
because of the greater force created.
 Significance of back EMF
• Along with motor, armature conductors also
rotates in field and hence cuts flux. But
according to DC generator principle induced
EMF is generated which is opposite to applied
voltage hence called as Back EMF.
DC motor voltage equation:

V= Eb + IaRa
 Multiply both sides by Ia we get
VIa= EbIa+Ia2Ra

VIa = Electrical input to the armature.

EbIa = Mechanical power developed in the armature.
Ia2Ra = CU losses in armature.
Condition for Maximum Power
 Torque

• Consider a pulley of radius “r” meter acted upon by a circumferential

force of “F” Newton which causes it to rotate at “N” r.p.m.
• Torque is the turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis. It
is measured by the product of force and the radius.
i.e., T = F * r (N-m)
 Work done by this force in one revolution W = force * distance =(F*
2πr)
 power developed = F* 2πr*N
i.e. (F*r)*2πN
Power developed in terms of torque and angular velocity
P= Tω watts
Where, T = F *r and
ω = 2πN/60 rad /sec (Where N is in rpm)
Therefore, Power developed in motor
P= 2πNT/60
Armature Torque
Shaft Torque
 m s
bl e
P r o
o r
e F
Ti m
Total losses in a D.C Machine
Copper losses are mainly due to the current passing through the winding.
1.Armature cu losses (30 to 40% of full load losses) --- Ia2 Ra
2.Shunt field cu losses(20 to30% of full load losses) ---- Ish2Rsh
3.Series field cu losses -- Ise2Rse
--Losses due to brush contact resistance is usually included armature cu losses.
Iron losses (Magnetic or Core losses) (20 to 30% of full load losses):
1)Hysteresis losses
2)Eddy current losses
Hysteresis losses (Wh):- The losses is due to the reversal of magnetization of the
armature core every portion of the rating core passes under N and S poles
alternately. There by attaining S and N polarity respectively. The core undergoes
one complete cycle of magnetic reversal after passing under one pair of poles.
 Frequency of magnetic reversals is given by
f=NP
120
 Hysteresis losses is given by steinmetz formula
Wh=η B1.6maxf V watts
V=Volume of the core in m3
η= Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
Eddy current losses:-(We)
 when the armature core rotates, it cuts the magnetic flux hence an e.m.f induced
in in the body of the core according to faradays law of electro magnetic induction. This
e.m.f through small sets up large current in the body of the core due to its small
resistance. This current is known as “Eddy Current”

 As armature cross sectional area is large it’s resistance is small in fig (a). Hence, eddy
current losses is large.
 In (fig b) The same core has been split up in to thin cross section has very high
resistance, hence magnitude of eddy currents is reduced considerably there by reducing
eddy current losses.

We=k B2 maxf2t2v2 watts

Bmax=maximum flux densities
f=Frequency of the magnetic reversals
v=volume of the armature core
t=Thickness of lamination

 Eddy current losses is reduced by laminated core but hysteresis losses can not
be reduced by this way.
Mechanical losses ( 10 to 20% of full load losses)
1.Friction losses
2.Windage losses

Friction losses:-
Frictional losses due to bearings

Windage losses:- Windage losses due to air gap between armature and field
winding.
Stray losses (Rotational losses):-
Magnetic losses and mechanical losses are collectively known as stray losses
Finally Losses are classified in to two types:-
i) Constant losses (standing losses)(Wc)
--Field cu losses is constant for shunt and compound generators
so, stray losses+ shunt cu losses are combined called
“constant losses”
ii) Variable losses:-The losses which varies with the load called
“variable losses”
-- Armature cu losses is know as “variable losses”
-- In series generator series field cu losses also
variable losses (IL=Ise=Ia)
So, Total losses=Armature copper losses + WC (Shunt and compound machines)
=Ia2Ra+Wc=(I+Ish)2Ra+Wc
Total losses=Variable losses+ Constant losses
 Applications of D.C Generators
Separately excited generators:
 Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are generally
used for testing purpose in the laboratories.
Self excited generators :
i) shunt generators :
 They are used for general lighting.
 They are also used for small power supply.
 They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output
voltage.
ii) series generators:-
 In series arc lightening .
 This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the
feeder in various types of distribution systems such as railway service.
iii) compound generators:-
 These are for domestic lighting purposes and to transmit energy over long
distance and for heavy power service such as electric railways.
Applications of DC Motors