Department of History & Heritage Management

Subject Area Method I

PGDT 421
 Unit One: Methods of Teaching History

Instructional Methods
Approaches, Techniques, Methods and Maxims of Teaching
•Teaching Approach: is a description of how you go about teaching your students.
Typically you might describe
 The sorts of teaching and learning activities that you have
 Ways in which you try to engage students with the subject
 The ways in which you support your students
• Teaching Techniques: Technique refers to specific activities manifesting in the classroom.

• Teaching Method: means by which a teacher attempts to bring about the desired
learning outcomes or the means by which he/she helps the learner learn. For instance,
lecture, demonstration, discussion, Independent study etc.

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 Cont.…
• Maxims of Teaching History: are basic pedagogical principles which contribute a lot for
smooth and effective teaching–learning process.
•According to Rao (1993), the teaching-learning process should proceed from:
 Past to present or vice versa
 Simple to complex.
 Known to unknown.
 Concrete to abstract
 Definite to indefinite.
 Particular to general and.
 Psychological to scientific study etc.
 Approaches to teaching is much broader than a teaching technique and teaching method.

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1.2. Methods of Teaching History and Factors
Affecting the Selection of Teaching Methods

Major Learning Theories

•Learning theories are many and divers.
•The three main theories we need to consider are the following:
i. Objectivists conceive of learning as a process in which learners passively receive an
objective body of knowledge that is transmitted to them
ii. Cognitivists view learning as a process in which learners add new components to their
cognitive structure
iii. Constructivists believe that learners construct their own reality or at least that learners
interpret reality based upon their interpretations of their experiences.

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 Cont.…
• Learning style is an individual's natural or habitual pattern of acquiring and
processing information in learning situations.
• A core concept is that individuals differ in how they learn. The idea of
individualized learning styles originated in the 1970s, and has greatly influenced
education.
• Students are divided into
 visual learners (prefer learning by observation),
 auditory learners (prefer listening and note taking),
 kinesthetic learners (prefer learning through experience and physical activity),
 and tactile learners (prefer learning by touching. Thus it is up to the teacher to
balance these different learning preferences in the classroom teaching.

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 Major Methods of Teaching in History
•Teaching methods used in History can broadly be classified into the Traditional (or teacher
centered) and active teaching (or student centered) methods.
•a) Traditional (Teacher Dominated) Methods of Teaching: A teacher centered method of
teaching is a method of teaching in which the teacher plans and directs all the student’s
activities, giving clear recipe like instructions for the task to be carried out.
e.g. lecture method
•b) Active Teaching and/ Learning Methods,, students plan, carryout and evaluate their
learning activities actively.
•They are responsible for their own learning.
•include group discussion, role-play, fieldwork, debate, games and simulation, jigsaw
groups, demonstration, seminars etc.

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 Unit 2:Teaching and Learning Materials in History

The concept of teaching and learning materials

• materials are all relevant sorts of media employed and arranged by the teacher and the
students to facilitate the attainment of the instructional objectives.
• quality of education and learning achievements depends on the availability and supply of
the teaching and learning materials.
• include written, verbal and visual instruments, devices and other means of
communication for the purpose of effective teaching the subject History.
• Furthermore, most scholars agreed that History can’t be taught successfully without
teaching and learning materials.
• Use the things of History in the teaching of History.

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Figure 1: Relationship between Resources, Objective and Methodology

Objectives (intended outcomes)

Approaches and
methodology Resources for
Learning

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• Figure 4 illustrates the process of instruction. instructional objectives will be set first
occupying the central position in the three way relationship.
• Then based on the instructional objectives the teaching learning methods and
instructional materials will be determined.
• materials can facilitate the rate of learning and enhance the teacher’s presentation
• instructional materials can be in the form of visual and audio form.
• Source materials (printed material). includes text books; syllabus; supplementary
materials and teacher’s guide.
 Instructional aids (audiovisual aids) .include audio materials; visual materials as well as
audio visual materials.
 These materials could be locally produced or original marketable printouts.

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1. Source materials
 Textbooks. serve as manuals of instruction for the teacher and the students.
 Teachers Guide Books. prepared by professionals for the use of the teacher at a class room
level. Teachers’ Guide Book covers the whole range of activities: techniques and strategies.
 Syllabus. fundamental document derived from the curriculum that contains the major
objectives, contents, methods and materials.
 Supplementary (supportive) materials. are important print out materials that can help to
fill the gap existing in the text books and update information regarding to current, dynamic
and contemporary issues and new innovations /ideas of recent character that were not
incorporated in the text book or the syllabus.
• include Reference books, Newspapers, magazines, Pamphlets, official reports, handouts,
study guides and etc.

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2. Instructional aids.
 part of the instructional materials that can help to facilitate the teaching learning
process of our lesson. They include
 Audio materials, Tape & Disc Recordings, Radio, Computer software’s & etc
 Visual materials like Charts, Drawings, Maps, models, pictures, Cartoons,
posters, slides, real objectives, Bulletin board, chalkboards, projector, etc.
 Audio visual materials which are multi-sensory materials such as Films,
Television, Video tapes, and Printed materials with recorded sounds.
•History teachers are expected to apply these instructional materials for the
successful achievement of their instructional objectives

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Factors that Determine the Selection and Application
of Teaching and Learning Materials in history

The selection & application of instructional materials has to consider.

1. The fitness of the media to the instructional objectives and subject matter:
•should be appropriate and best alternative in facilitating the achievement of the stated
instructional objectives, content and the topic or lesson to be taught.
•media should in accordance with the purpose stated in the form of SMART objectives
related with cognitive, affective and/or psychomotor domains of the lesson.
2. The characteristics of the Learners’: include class size,their age, background knowledge,
ability, performance and etc of the learners.
example, using sophisticated media could not be helpful to facilitate instructional outcomes
at lower grades with very young age groups

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3. Availability, Practicability and quality of the media: the teacher has to be sure the
instructional materials utilized in the instructional process are available in the school or could
be easily produced by the teacher/ learner; or are commercially produced; or loaned from
other school; or produced at learning resources center within the locality
4. Teacher’s Capability: This includes the teacher’s skill, knowledge and attitude towards the
media.
5. The Cost of the media and its financial implications: The cost of producing or buying or
incurring the instructional media by the teacher should be considered in to account.
6. Bias and stereotypes; - consider how gender issues, social, cultural economic groups are
presented in the media..
7. occasional evaluation about the use, function and effect of the instructional materials on the
teaching learning process in facilitating and attaining the instructional objectiv

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Common Types of Visual Aids in Teaching History

•The most commonly utilized (to be utilized) visual aids in Ethiopian high schools
during the teaching learning process of History are.
 Blackboard (chalkboard). .
 Bulletin board
 Cartographic Maps.
 Reliable/Real Objects
 Printed materials:

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 Unit 3. Planning History Lesson
Educational Aims, Goals and Objectives

• Aims, goals and objectives represent the educational statement from general to specific

• statements of learning expectations, to which curriculum and instruction are designed.

• They are broadly stated outcomes which are acceptable to virtually everyone who is
interested in the educational sense program

Aims: are general expressions of values that provide a of directions.

Goals: like aims, provide a sense of direction, but they are more precise.

Goals relate a general aim to some specific aspect of the curriculum.

Instructional Objective : statements of performance to be demonstrated by each student

• derived from goals, aims and phrased in measurable and observable terms.

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 Types of Objectives
•Objectives are different from each other in many ways.
•objectives may differ in scope that is, wide and general or specific and narrow.
•differ on the basis behavior we want to develop amongtudents.
Classification of objectives on the basis of scope s
•General Objectives: These are objectives that are wide and general in scope.
•They are stated with covert behaviors.
•They are not achievable, measurable and observable within a limited period of time.
•Specific/Behavioral Objectives: are objectives that are very narrow in scope.
•stated in measurable, observable and achievable terms.
•Action verbs are used in stating the objectives.
•The objectives are usually stated in behavioral terms, that is, with overt behaviors.

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Classification of objectives on the basis of behavior they develop
A) Cognitive domain: emphasize remembering or rephrasing what has been learnt.
 six major categories or levels in Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive domain are knowledge,
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
B) Affective domain: mainly concerned with development of attitudes, emotions and values
and deal with feelings, likes, and dislikes.
 affective domain is arranged in to 5 levels, Receiving, responding, valuing, organization,
characterizing..
C) Psychomotor Domain: refers to learning that depends on fine muscle coordination and
activities.
 Objectives in arranged in to 5 levels: imitation, manipulation, precision, articulation, and
naturalization.

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Factors to be considered while stating Instructional objectives
 The scope of the topic
 Learners characteristics
 Duration of time allocated to given subject and
 Instructional material available

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Basic elements and steps in planning courses,
units, and Daily lessons
The Concept of Planning

• the common definitions of planning are:

 Planning is a rational process of preparing a set of decision for future activity directe
towards achieving the desired goals by optional means.
 It is an arrangement of things that have been carefully considered for carrying out som
activity.
 It is a process of carefully analyzing and determining what to do in the future
•Planning a work and implementing the work planned are the two most essential keys t
become effective and efficient worker.

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• The planning process
 identifies the goals or objectives to be achieved,

 formulates strategies to achieve them,

 arranges or creates the means required, and

 implements, directs, and monitors all steps in their proper sequence.

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3.4. Importance, Basic Elements and Types of Instructional Planning

Importance of Instructional Planning

•It helps to answer the following fundamental questions:
•Why to teach: - aim of education is to develop harmonious personalities who are culturally
refined, emotionally stable, ethically sound, mentally aired, morally upright, physically
strong, socially efficient and spiritually enlightened..
•What to teach: -helps us to decide up on the details of the continent to teach, order of
teaching,.
•How to teach: - focuses on thinking over the methods, techniques and strategies to be used
•When to teach: - refers to knowing the actual teaching days
•With what to teach: - refers to considering appropriate instructional materials or aids.
• Where to teach : - refers to identifying the convenient working environment vis-à-vis the
methods of instructions.

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Instructional planning has the following advantages:
 Helps effective teaching to occur.
 It produces a well-organized and purposeful classroom atmosphere
 It produces confidence in the teacher.
 It saves a lot of time.
 Reduce classroom management problems or misbehavior.
 Helps someone to become master of the material and methods to teach it.
 Ensures the coherence of the program.

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Elements or components of instructional planning

 Statement of philosophy: - This is a general statement about why the plan is important and how students will learn the
content.
 Need assessment: - statement of philosophy should demonstrate an appreciation for the cultural diversity of the nation
and of the school
 Aims, goals and objectives:
 Sequence: - The sequence of a plan refers to its relationship with the preceding and subsequent curricula.
 Integration: - The integration component concerns the plan’s connection with other curricular and co-curricular
activities across the grade level.
 Sequentially planned learning activities: this refers to the presentation of the organized and subsequent units and
lessons which must be appropriate for the subject matter and grade level and for the age and diversity of students.
 Resource needed: - This refers to listing of resources such as books, speakers, field trips and media, diagrams, charts
and any other important instructional aides to facilitate students learning. insist
 Assessment: - for diagnosing what student know or think they know prior to the instruction (pre-assessment), evaluation
of student achievement during instruction (formative Assessment), and at completion of the instruction (Summative
evaluation).

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 Types (Levels) of Lesson Planning
•Teachers are engaged in three levels of instructional planning. These are:
I. Annual (course or long-term) planning
•The annual plan would link to the school or departments over all curricula, and at the
same time tied to the national curriculum.
•Things to be included in annual plan are general.
 Syllabus prepared on that particular subject he/she has assigned to teach.
 A school calendar.
 objectives for each topic included in the syllabus.
 Objectives should be stated (written) in terms of performance/behavioral change.
 Contents in the annual plan have to be more of general.

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•ANNUAL LESSON PLAN FORMAT
Name of the School ---------------------------- Academic year ---------------------------

Name of the teacher ---------------------------- Number of working days ---------------

Subject Matter --------------------------------- Total Number of Periods------------

Grade --------------------------------------- Number of periods per week-----------

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Sem Months Week No of Periods. Main 0bjecti Contents Methods of Instructi Method of Remark
allocated Topics ves Teaching onal Evaluation
Materials

1st

2nd

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•Teachers Name _______ Dep’t head’s Name: _______ V. principal’s Name__________
• Signature. _________ Signature. __________ Signature: ________________
• Date _________ Date ___________ Date: _________________

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 Unit Plan
• A unit Plan is an organization of objectives, and learning problems, prepared exactly to
focus around a problem or one central idea.
•There are two kinds of unit Plans. These are: -
 Resource Unit
 Teaching unit
•Resource unit: - refers to a collection of objectives, activities & contents on broad topics.
•Teaching unit: - is a systematically arranged collection of objectives, activities and
contents, materials etc.
•It has to be carefully, logically and psychologically sequenced.

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•Examples of a unit format is given in the following pages
Name of the School ----------------- Academic year ----------------------

Teacher’s name -------------------- Semester -----------------

Subject ---------------------- Time required for the unit -------

Topic --------------------------------- Grade ---------------------------------

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Objectives Content Procedures and Instructional media Evaluation Remarks
outline activities

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•Teachers Name ________ Dep’t Head’s Name______ Vice Principal’s Name________
•Sig. _________ Sig. _____________ Sig. ____________
• Date _________ Date ___________ Date ___________

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 Daily Lesson Planning
 Is an organized set of activities designed to present on manageable sized piece of course.
 A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction for one class.
Components a Daily Lesson Plan:
•Lesson Topic: - The topic states the concept to be presented to the class and limits the scope
of material to be presented.
•Specific objectives: - should be briefly showing the main aims of the daily lesson plans.
•While writing the specific objectives, a teacher should consider the three domains
(cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains).
•They should be stated in behavioral, (performance) terms.
•Moreover, it has to be stated in measurable and attainable terms.

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Procedures: - a daily lesson needs to include the following:
 Introduction (set induction)
 Presentation (the Lesson development
 Closure
 The timetable
 Materials or teaching aids
 Assignment
 Remark.

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•Formats of a Daily lesson Plan
•School Name----------------------- Date --------------- period ------------
•Teacher’s Name ------------------------- Duration: ------------------------------
•Subject --------------------------- Unit ------------------------------
•Grade and section----------------------- Topic ---------------------------

Learning outcome (specific objectives) |

•__________________________________________________________________________
•_________________________________________________________________________
•___________________________________________________________________________

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Times Content Teacher activities Students’ Resource Evaluation Remark
activities
Introduction
Presentation
Stabilization
Consolidation

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•Teacher’s Dep’t head’s V. principal
•Name ___________________ _______________ _______________
•Sig. _________ __________ __________
•Date _______ ___________ ____________

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 Unit Four: Assessment in History Teaching

The Concept, Purpose and Attributes of Assessment

• In Teaching process, teachers are expected to undertake evidence based assessments on a continuous
base.
•The success of the teaching process is usually assessed against the course goals and the specific learning
outcomes
Techniques used to Gather Assessment Information in History
•Generally, teachers’ use two broad methods to gather information about students’ progress,,. These are:
Paper –and-pencil technique: refers to assessment methods in which students write down their response to
questions
•This method, generally, comprises both summative and formative assessment techniques.
Observational technique- approach that involves watching students while they are undertaking some
activities, or listening to students when they speak, read, and discusses things.
• Assessment is for learning about students and their work by teachers and by students about themselves.
• It is through assessment that students learn about their individual strengths, weaknesses

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Major Categories (Classes) of Assessment
 Observation, Course work and tests:
 Formative, summative and Diagnostic
 objective and subjective
 referencing (criterion-referenced, norm-referenced, and
 Informal and formal

o Observation, Course work and tests: sometimes a long list of assessments can be
summarized into observation, course work and tests, which each of them further sub-
classified into a number of strategies.

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Observation Course work Tests
assessment
 Oral questioning  practical work and  monthly tests
 Micro-teaching report  mid-semester
 Debates  assignment or research  final exam
 Teaching practice
 Essays  different types of
 Tutorials
 Problems questions
 Presentation or
 Worksheets
 Practical work
 Pair or group work  portfolio

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Informal and formal assessment in History:
Formal assessment usually implies a written document, such as a test, quiz..
A formal assessment is given a numerical score or grade based on student
performance,
an informal assessment does not usually contribute to a student's final grade.
An informal assessment usually occurs in a more casual manner and may
include observation, inventories, checklists, rating scales, rubrics,
performance and portfolio assessments, participation, peer and self-
evaluation, and discussion.
Both informal and formal assessments can be done by both external and
internal bodies.
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Formative and Summative Assessment in History

 Summative : represented by both external and internal examinations given

at the end of semesters and at the end of years.
• can either be norm-referenced or criterion-referenced.
• In this system, students are graded against the average performance, which
acts as a kind of bench mark.
• In criterion referenced, students are evaluated on the basis of a prefixed
grading scale.
• The purpose of summative assessment is placing or grading of candidates and
predicting future achievements.

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 Formative assessment
• Is a monitoring procedure undertaken on a continuing basis.
• It is criterion-referenced, meaning that the pupils are expected to attain
appropriate levels of knowledge and understanding.
Assessment of Students Learning in History
•teachers can undertake assessments before, during and after learning.
•Each of this assessment has its own objectives.
•Assessment of student learning in History may be the daily informal
assessment that the teacher gives to the students as they are working on an
exercise or homework or project.
•This may involve just a verbal approval or otherwise of an exercise.

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•The objective is to determine to what extent the teacher has succeeded in
achieving his objectives.
•There is also the more formal semester, seasonal, or mid-seasonal examinations.
•There are also formal exams prepared by bodies outside the school system.
•The formal external examination set by an authority outside the school system
can also be another assessment technique.
• Its purpose is to measure the standard of knowledge and understanding of the
students either in a state or a country of region.
•the assessment techniques used to measure students learning in History are
categorized into diagnostic, formative and summative assessment.

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 Formative assessment techniques
• It is used to assess students’ progress and understanding while the teaching-learning is going on.
• According to Frye, tools that are used to assess classroom learning is divided into two. These are:
 Tools for Assessing Learning at a Point in Time and
 Tools for assessing learning over time
I. Tools for Assessing Learning at a Point in Time
• Tools used to assess learning at a point include the following:
 Minute paper
 Muddiest Point Exercise
 Punctuated Lectures
 Chain Notes and
 Classroom Opinion Polls
a) Minute paper: Several minutes before the end of class, you might stop your lecture or end the discussion
to ask students to take one or two minutes to answer, in writing, several questions about the day’s work.

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a) Muddiest Point Exercise: The muddiest point exercise asks students to think about what
went on in class that day and to write about what was the “muddiest” (least clear) point in
that day’s class.
b) Punctuated Lectures: provides immediate, on-the-spot feedback on how students are
learning, and how their behavior may be influencing the process..
This technique requires students and teachers to go through five steps:
 Listen: Students begin by listening to a lecture or demonstration.
 Stop: After a portion of the presentation has been completed, the teacher stops the action.
 Reflect: Students reflect on what they were doing during the presentation, and how their
behavior may have helped or hindered their understanding of the information.
 Write: Students write down any insights they have gained.
 Feedback: Students give feedback to the teacher in the form of short, anonymous notes.

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a) Chain Notes: results in a rich, composite record of each individual student’s reactions
to the class
b) Classroom Opinion Surveys: Classroom Opinion Polling can help you discover student
opinions about course-related issues.
Tools for assessing learning over time
c) Systematic Progression of Assignments: refers to a group of assignments that has been
scheduled throughout the quarter to track student progress on specific learning
objectives as they occur.
 These often (or may) focus on one particular learning objective the instructor is
particularly interested in studying..

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a) Pre/Post-Test Survey: can be used at the beginning of the semester to capture the extent
of student knowledge and understanding about key course concepts they will study that
quarter.
b) Appraising students’ work samples, homework and portfolios: Assessment of a student
should include consideration of his or her exercise books each week to determine the
amount of work the student typically produces in a lesson or for homework, the
accuracy and quality of the work, and the consistency day by day
c) Portfolios: Encouraging students to collate and store work samples over time for later
evaluation purposes is often termed portfolio assessment.
 A systematic progression of tasks that can be linked to course goals and objectives and
interpreted in the context of individual student outcomes.

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a) Pear teaching: is used to assess pre-service teachers for their ability to prepare and
deliver a lesson.
b) Assessment by Observation: Observations are often more useful than formal testing
because they can be carried out anonymously
 observation is important for assessing physical & social skills, work habits, attitudes,
interests, & self-management.
 Observation may be carried out informally, or may be made formally
 Formal observation: is conducted by adhering to a specified set of procedures or a
checklist

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 Informal observation: in this case there is no set of format or procedure. Teachers
constantly look at students’ participation, the kind of questions asked, the interest level of
students. etc.
a) Quizzes and informal tests: Often teachers use a quick quiz or short test as one way of
motivating students and revising work that has been taught.
b) Questioning: It is information gathering tool in formative assessment.
 Questions can be oral or written and similarly require an oral or written response.
c) Debating: A debate is an organized discussion on an issue which is usually controversial.
Debate is important to assess students’ communication skills.

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a) Self and peer assessment:
 Self-assessment (SA): involves students taking responsibility for monitoring and
making judgments about their own learning.
 Self- assessment' can be a way of assessing the product of learning but it is a learning
process in itself.
 In this sense the term 'self- evaluation' may be more appropriate since it is about
developing students' ability to make judgments about the quality of material.
 Thus, SA can be both formative and summative.

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 Peer assessment: involves students assessing the ‘amount, level, value, worth, quality, or
success of the products or outcomes of learning of peers of similar statuses
•It can range from students marking multiple-choice questions against a template, or
providing editorial comments on a written task, through to judging the quality of an oral
presentation.
•Peer assessment in group projects requires group members to evaluate the contribution of
other group members to the project.
Written Test (Examination) Item Construction and Types of Test Items in History
•It is assessment undertaken timely, seasonally or midterm or annual exams in the form of
tests or examinations of what has been learnt.

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• Multiple choice tests
 Map or diagram interpretation
 Vocabulary tests
 Debate performance
 True-false tests
 Presentation
 Labels on a diagram test
 Structured essay
 Comprehension tests

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 Unguided essay
 Short answer tests
 Field trip report
 Decision making exercises
 Library research essay
 classification items
 True false items
 matching items
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 A Good Teacher is like a Candle
It Consumes itself to light the way for Others
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk

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 END
THANK YOU

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