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Introduction

to
Engineering
Seismology
 Definitions
 Plate Tectonics
 Faults
 Seismic Waves
 Earthquake Hazards
 Size of Earthquakes
 Ground Motion
 Response Spectra
 Seismic Design
Seismology is the branch of Geophysics
concerned with the study and analysis of
Earthquakes and the science of energy
propagation through the Earth's crust.
Engineering Seismology is concerned with the
solution of engineering problems connected with
the Earthquakes. Seismology is extremely
important because:
Study of earthquakes gives us important clues
about the earth’s interior
Understanding earthquakes allows us to
minimize the damage and loss of life
Earthquake engineering is concerned
with the design and construction of all
kinds of civil and building engineering
systems to withstand earthquake
shaking. Earthquake engineers, in the
course of their work, are faced with
many uncertainties and must use
sound engineering judgment to
develop safe solutions to challenging
problems. They also rely heavily on
state-of-the-art techniques in
computing, materials science,
laboratory testing and field monitoring.
What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is the vibration of
Earth produced by the rapid release of
accumulated energy in elastically
strained rocks
Energy released radiates in all directions

from its source, the focus


Energy propagates in the form of seismic

waves
Sensitive instruments around the world

record the event


What causes an earthquake?
Movement of Tectonic Plates
Earth is divided into sections called
Tectonic plates that float on the
fluid-like interior of the Earth.
Earthquakes are usually caused by
sudden movement of earth plates
Rupture of rocks along a fault
Faults are localized areas of
weakness in the surface of the
Earth,sometimes the plate boundary
Where do earthquakes
occur?
plate
boundaries
faults
Release of Accumulated energy
The Focus and Epicenter of an Earthquake

 The point within Earth


where faulting begins is
the focus, or
hypocenter
 The point directly above
the focus on the surface
is the epicenter
Elastic Rebound Theory
Rocks bend under stress while storing elastic energy. When
the strain in the rocks exceeds their strength, breaking will
occur along the fault. Stored elastic energy is released as the
earthquake. Rocks“snap back”, or rebound to their original
condition.
Foreshocks and aftershocks

Adjustments that follow a major


earthquake often generate smaller
earthquakes called aftershocks
Small earthquakes, called foreshocks,
often precede a major earthquake by
days or, in some cases, by as much as
several years
Study of earthquakes
 The study of earthquake waves,
Seismology, dates back almost 2000
years to the Chinese Seismographs,
instruments that record seismic
waves. The first seismograph called
Di-Dong-Di was invented by Cheng
Heng (132 A.D.).
The ancient Chinese seismograph consist
of a special vase that had eight sculpted
dragons mounted around the vase in eight
primary directions. Each dragon held in its
mouth a metal ball. When the ground
shook, some of the balls would fall from
the mouths of the dragons into the waiting
mouths of the sculpted frogs to show how
the ground had moved.
Earthquake Waves
The energy released during the
earthquake travels as waves
Modern Seismograph can measure the
intensity and duration of these waves in
different directions.
Seismogram is visual record of arrival
time and magnitude of shaking
associated with seismic wave, generated
by a seismograph.
Modern
Seismogra
ph
(Horizonta
l)
Modern Seismograph (Vertical)
Seismogram
Location and Intensity of Earthquake

seismographic stations around the


World work together to
record earthquake location
determine earthquake strength
Earthquake Depth
Earthquakes usually occur at some depth below the ground
Surface. The depth can also be calculated from seismograph
records
Earthquake foci are described as:
Shallow: less than 70 km depth
Intermediate: 70 - 300 km depth
Deep: 300 - 700 km depth
90% of earthquake foci are less than 100 km deep
Large earthquakes are mostly at < 60 km depth
No earthquakes occur deeper than 700 km
Predicting Earthquakes
Strange Animal Behavior
stress in the rocks causes tiny hairline fractures to form, the
cracking of the rocks evidently emits high pitched sounds
and minute vibrations imperceptible to humans but
noticeable by many animals.
Foreshocks
unusual increase in the frequency of small earthquakes
before the main shock
Changes in water level
porosity increases or decreases with changes in strain
Seismic Gaps
based of the chronological distribution of major earthquakes
PROTECTING AGAINST EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE
Prepare a Seismic Risk Map for the globe which identifies rock
types, liquefaction potential, landslide potential.

Extensive geologic surveying has to be done to identify all


active faults, including hidden faults.

Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures


Enact building codes to design and build earthquake-resistant
structures in high seismic risk areas. wood, steel and
reinforced concrete are preferred as they tend to move with the
shaking ground (unreinforced concrete and heavy masonry
tend to move independently and in opposition to the shaking,
battering one another until the structure collapses)

Critical facilities such as nuclear power plants and dams should be


built on stable ground and as far as possible from active faults.
Plate
Tectonics
Origin of Universe
 Big Bang model (Hubble, 1929) -
The universe began with an
explosive expansion of matter,
which later became what we know
as stars, planets, moons, etc. This
event is thought to have occurred
10 - 15 billion yrs ago.
 Nebular Hypothesis (Kant,
Laplace 1796) - Earth and the
other bodies of our solar system
(Sun, moons, etc.) formed from a
Big bang theory
•There was a big bang some 15 billion years
ago, when the size of the universe was zero
and the temperature was infinite. The
universe then started expanding at near
light speed.
•At about 10,000 years after the Big Bang,
the temperature had fallen to such an extent
that the energy density of the Universe
began to be dominated by massive
particles, rather than the light and other
radiation which had predominated earlier.
This explains the formation of galaxies and
other large-scale structures observed in
universe today.
Nebular Hypothesis
•According to this hypothesis,
the nebular cloud consisted of
H and He, and a small
percentage of the heavier
elements we find in the solar
system
•Within the rotating disk, the
rocky material and gases
began to nucleate and accrete
into protoplanets
Formation of Earth’s
Interior
•As Earth was formed, it was extremely hot
from the bombardment of space debris,
radioactive decay, and high internal pressures.

•These processes caused Earth’s interior to


melt, and then to differentiate into regions of
chemical and physical differences as it
cooled.
Layers of the Earth
 Crust:
 Continental crust (25-40 km)
 Oceanic crust (~6 km)
 Mantle
 Upper mantle (650 km)
 Lower mantle (2235 km)
 Core
 Outer core: liquid (2270 km)
 Inner core: solid (1216 km)


Values in brackets represent the approximate thickness of each layer
Layers of the Earth
The earth is divided into four main layers: Inner core, outer
core, mantle and crust.
The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the
outer core is molten, with about 10% sulphur (S). The inner
core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid.
Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed
of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and
oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000 degrees C, the
mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner.
The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is
composed of the least dense calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na)
aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is
rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
Continental drift
Theory that continents and plates
move on the surface of the Earth
proposed by Alfred Wegener in
1915.

Alfred Wegener
Maps by Wegener (1915),
showing continental drift
Theory of continental drift
Evidence for continental
drift
 Matching coastlines
 Matching mountains
 Matching rock types and rock ages
 Matching glacier deposits
 Matching fossils
Evidence for continental
drift

Matching
coastlines
Evidence for continental
drift

Matching
mountain
ranges
Evidence for continental
drift

Matching
rock types
and ages
of rocks
Evidence for continental
drift

Matching glacier
deposits 300
million years
ago
Evidence for continental
drift

Fossils of of Mesosaurus
(aquatic reptile) found on
both sides of Atlantic
Theory of Plate tectonics
 The theory of Plate tectonics was proposed
in 1960s based on the theory of continental
drift.
 This is the Unifying theory that explains the
formation and deformation of the Earth’s
surface.
 According to this theory, continents are
carried along on huge slabs (plates) on the
Earth’s outermost layer (Lithosphere).
 Earth’s outermost layer is divided into 12
major Tectonic Plates (~80 km deep).
These plates move relative to each other a
few centimeters per year.
Earth’s magnetic field
Basic Data used in
formulating plate tectonics:
Magnetic stripes on the sea-
floor. Magnetic field of
Earth reverses on semi-
regular basis. Minerals act
like compass needles and
point towards magnetic
north. “Hot” rocks record the
direction of the magnetic
field as they cool.
Tectonic plates of Earth
Types of plate
boundaries
 Divergent plate boundaries: where
plates move apart
 Convergent Plate boundaries: where
plates come together
 Transform plate boundaries: where
plates slide past each other
Types of plate
boundaries

Divergent (Tension)

Convergent (Compression)

Transform (shearing)
Types of plate
boundaries
Divergent Plate
Boundaries
 Plates move away
from each other
(tension)
 New lithosphere is
formed
 normal faults
 Causes volcanism
 not very explosive
Convergent Plate
Boundary
 Plates move toward
each other
(compression)
 lithosphere is

consumed
 reverse/thrust

faults
and folds
 Mountain building

 explosive volcanism
Ocean- Continent
convergent margin
 Ocean-continent
plates collide
 Ocean plate
subducts below
continent
 Forms a
subduction zone
 Earthquakes and
volcanoes
Ocean-ocean convergent
margin
 2 oceanic plates
collide
 One plate dives
(subducts) beneath
other
 Forms subduction
zone
 Earthquakes and
volcanoes
Continent-continent
convergent margin
 2 continental
plates collide
 Neither plate
wants to
subduct
 Collision zone example: Himalayas
forms high
mountains
 Earthquakes,
no volcanoes
Himalayas: Continents
collide
Millions of years ago India and an ancient
ocean called the Tethys Ocean were sat on
a tectonic plate. This plate was moving
northwards towards Asia at a rate of 10
centimeters per year. The Tethys oceanic
crust was being subducted under the
Asian Continent. The ocean got
progressively smaller until about 55 milion
years ago when India 'hit' Asia. Because
both these continental landmasses have
about the same rock density, one plate
could not be subducted under the other.
The pressure of the impinging plates could
only be relieved by thrusting skyward,
contorting the collision zone, and forming
the jagged Himalayan peaks
Transform plate margin
 Two plates slide
past each other
 strike slip faults.
 Lithosphere is
neither consumed
nor destroyed.
 Earthquakes, no
volcanoes
 Responsible for
most of the
earthquakes
What drives plate
movement?
 Ultimately: heat transported from
core and mantle to surface
 Heat transported by convection
 Core is ~5,000°C and surface is
~0°C
 Where mantle rises: rifting
 Where mantle dives: subduction
zones
Types of faults
and
seismic waves
Elastic Rebound Theory
 This theory was discovered by making
measurements at a number of points
across a fault.

 Prior to an earthquake it was noted that


the rocks adjacent to the fault were
bending. These bends disappeared after
an earthquake suggesting that the energy
stored in bending the rocks was suddenly
released during the earthquake.
Elastic Rebound Theory
Elastic Rebound
Sequence of elastic rebound:
Stresses
Sequence of elastic rebound:
Bending
Sequence of elastic rebound:
Rupture
Sequence of elastic rebound:
Rebound
Sudden Slip by Elastic
Rebound
 Stresses (force/area) are applied to a
fault.
 Strain (deformation) accumulates in
the vicinity of friction-locked faults.
 Strain accumulation reaches a
threshold and fault slips suddenly
 Rupture (slip) continues over some
portion of the fault. Slip is the distance
of displacement along a fault.
Fault
A fracture (crack) in the earth, where the two sides move past
each other and the relative motion is parallel to the fracture.

90˚ dip = vertical fault plane


0˚ strike = north parallel fault plane
Surface Trace of a fault
Different Fault Types
n)

shear)
Normal Dip-slip fault

hanging wall moves down

A Normal dip slip fault


Reverse Dip-slip
fault
Hanging wall moves up
This is also called a Thrust Fault.

A reverse dip-slip fault


Strike-slip fault

Displacement in horizontal direction

A strike-slip fault
Strike-Slip Fault – Left
Lateral
Strike-Slip Fault – Right
Lateral
Oblique-slip fault

Displacement in both
vertical and horizontal
directions

An oblique-slip fault
Blind/Hidden faults
Sequence of Events
 1) Tectonic loading of faults
 2) Earthquakes
 3) Seismic waves
 4) Shaking (ground motion)
 5) Structural failure
Seismic Waves
(Earthquake’s energy is transmitted through
the earth as seismic waves)
 Two types of seismic waves
 Body waves- transmit energy through
earth’s interior
 Primary (P) wave- rocks vibrate parallel to
direction of wave
 Compression and expansion (slinky
example)
 Secondary (S) wave- rocks move perpendicular
to wave direction
 Rock shearing (rope-like or ‘wave’ in a
stadium)
 Surface waves- transmit energy along
earth’s surface
 Rock moves from side to side like snake
 Rolling pattern like ocean wave
Primary
waves
P-waves, compressional or
longitudinal.
Typicalcrustal velocity: 6 km/s (
~13,500 mph)
Travel through solids, liquids, or
gases
Material movement is in the same Even for P waves (which
direction as wave movement can travel all the way
Behavior: Cause dilation and through) we see some
contraction (compression) of the changes in the path at
earth material through which certain points within
they pass. Earth. This is due to the
Arrival:
They arrive first on a discontinuities present at
seismogram. different boundaries in
earth structure
Secondary
waves
 S waves (secondary)
 Typical crustal velocity: 3
km/s ( ~6,750 mph)
 Behavior: Cause shearing
and stretching of the earth
material through which
they pass. Generally cause
the most severe shaking;
very damaging to S-wave velocity drops to
structures.
zero at the core-mantle
 Travel through solids only
boundary or Gutenberg
 shear waves - move material
perpendicular to wave Discontinuity
movement
 Arrival: Second on a
seismogram.
Shadow Zone - no earthquake
Variation of P and S wave velocities within the earth

M-disc G-disc M-Disc : The


Mohorovicic
discontinuity
G-disc: The Gutenberg
discontinuity
Surface
Waves
Traveljust below or along the
ground’s surface
Slower than body waves;
rolling and side-to-side
movement
Especially damaging to
buildings
Two most common types of
surface waves
Rayleigh Waves
 Typical velocity: ~ 0.9
that of the S wave
 Behavior: Causes
vertical together with
back-and-forth
horizontal motion.
Motion is similar to
that of being in a boat
in the ocean when a
swell moves past.
 Arrival: They usually
arrive last on a
seismogram.
Love Waves
 Typical velocity:
Depends on earth
structure, but less
than velocity of S
waves.
 Behavior: Causes
shearing motion
(horizontal) similar to
S waves.
 Arrival: They usually
arrive after the S
wave and before the
Rayleigh wave.
Primary Waves
Secondary Waves
Movement of Earth
Locating an Earthquake’s Epicenter
Seismic wave behavior
 P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L and R

 After an earthquake, the difference in arrival times at a

seismograph station can be used to calculate the distance


from the seismograph to the epicenter (D).
If average speeds for all these waves is known, use the
S-P (S minus P) time formula: a method to compute
the distance (D) between a recording station and an
event. Time 
Distance
Velocity
P wave has a velocity VP ; S wave has a velocity VS .
VS is less than VP .
Both originate at the same place --the hypocenter.
They travel the same distance
but the S wave takes more time than the P wave.
D
Time for the S wave to travel a distance D: TS  ;
VS
D
Time for the P wave to travel a distance D: TP  .
VP
The time difference
D D  1 1  VP  VS 
 S P V V
T  T   DV
 S

V D V V 
S P P   P S 
Now solve for the Distance D:
 V V 
D =  P S TS  TP 
VP  VS 
Seismic Travel-time Curve: If the speeds of the
seismic waves are not known, use Travel-Time curve
for that region to get the distance

1. Measure time
between P and S
wave on
seismogram
2. Use travel-
time graph to get
distance to
epicenter
Global Travel Time Curve
3-circle method: 3-circle steps:
1) Read S-P time from 3
seismograms.
north
2) Compute distance for
D1 each event/recording
D2 station pair (D1, D2, D3)
using S-P time formula.
3) Draw each circle of
radius Di on map.
4) Overlapping point is
the event location.
D3
Assumption: Source is
relatively shallow;
epicenter is relatively
close to hypocenter.
Earthquake
Hazards
Major Hazards of
Earthquakes
 Ground Motion: Shakes structures causing
them to collapse
 Liquefaction: Conversion of formally stable
cohesionless soils to a fluid mass, causing
damage to the structures
 Landslides: Triggered by the vibrations
 Fire : Indirect result of earthquakes triggered
by broken gas and power lines
 Tsunamis: large waves created by the
instantaneous displacement of the sea floor
during submarine faulting
Damage due to
Earthquakes
Earthquakes have varied effects, including changes in
geologic features, damage to man-made structures
and impact on human and animal life.

Earthquake Damage depends on many factors:


 The size of the Earthquake
 The distance from the focus of the earthquake
 The properties of the materials at the site
 The nature of the structures in the area
Ground Shaking

Frequency of shaking differs for different seismic waves.


High frequency body waves shake low buildings more.
Low frequency surface waves shake high buildings more.
Intensity of shaking also depends on type of subsurface material.
Unconsolidated materials amplify shaking more than rocks do.
Buildings respond differently to shaking depending on
construction styles, materials
Wood -- more flexible, holds up well
Earthen materials, unreinforced concrete -- very vulnerable
to shaking.
Earthquake Effects - Ground
Shaking

Northridge, CA 1994
Earthquake
Effects -
Ground Shaking

Northridge, CA 1994
Earthquake Effects - Ground
Shaking

Loma Prieta, CA 1989


KGO-TV News ABC-7
Earthquake Effects - Ground
Shaking

Kobe, Japan 1995


Earthquake Effects - Ground
Shaking

Kobe, Japan 1995


Earthquake Effects - Surface
Faulting

Landers, CA 1992
Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking

Collapse of Buildings
Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking

Image of Bachau in Kutch region of Gujarat after earthquake


Earthquake Destruction: Landslides
Liquefaction is a phenomenon
in which the strength and
stiffness of a soil is reduced by
earthquake shaking or other
rapid loading. Liquefaction and
related phenomena have been
responsible for tremendous
amounts of damage in
historical earthquakes around
the world.
Earthquake Effects - Landslides

Source: National Geophysical Data Center

Turnnagin Heights,Alaska,1964
Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction

Flow failures of structures are caused by loss of strength of


underlying soil

Nishinomia Bridge 1995 Kobe earthquake, Japan


Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction

Sand Boil: Ground water rushing to the surface due to


liquefaction

Sand blow in mud flats used for salt production


southwest of Kandla Port, Gujarat
Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction

Lateral Spreading: Liquefaction related phenomenon

Upslope portion of lateral spread at Budharmora, Gujarat


Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction

Lateral spreading in the soil beneath embankment causes the


embankment to be pulled apart, producing the large crack down the
center of the road.

Cracked Highway, Alaska, 1964


Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction

Liquefied soil exerts higher pressure on retaining


walls,which can cause them to tilt or slide.
Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction

Increased water pressure causes collapse of dams


Earthquake Destruction: Fire

Earthquakes sometimes
cause fire due to broken gas
lines, contributing to the loss
of life and economy.

The destruction of lifelines and


utilities make impossible for
firefighters to reach fires started
and make the situation worse
eg. 1989 Loma Prieta
1906 San Francisco
Earthquake Effects - Fires

Loma Prieta, CA 1989

KGO-TV News ABC-7


Earthquake Destruction: Tsunamis

Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and
vertically displaces the overlying water.
The water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium
position. Waves are formed as the displaced water mass, which acts
under the influence of gravity, attempts to regain its equilibrium.
Tsunami travels at a speed that is related to the water depth - hence, as
the water depth decreases, the tsunami slows.
The tsunami's energy flux, which is dependent on both its wave speed
and wave height, remains nearly constant.
Consequently, as the tsunami's speed diminishes as it travels into
shallower water, its height grows. Because of this effect, a tsunami,
imperceptible at sea, may grow to be several meters or more in height
near the coast and can flood a vast area.
Tsunami
Tsunami Movement: ~600 mph in deep water
~250 mph in medium depth
water
~35 mph in shallow water
Earthquake Destruction: Tsunamis

The tsunami of 3m height at Shikotan, Kuril Islands,


1994 carried this vessel 70 m on-shore. The waves have
eroded the soil and deposited debris.
Geomorphological Changes
•Geomorphological changes are often caused by an
earthquake: e.g., movements--either vertical or horizontal--
along geological fault traces; the raising, lowering, and tilting
of the ground surface with related effects on the flow of
groundwater;
•An earthquake produces a permanent displacement across
the fault.
•Once a fault has been produced, it is a weakness within the
rock, and is the likely location for future earthquakes.
•After many earthquakes, the total displacement on a large
fault may build up to many kilometers, and the length of the
fault may propagate for hundreds of kilometers.
List of Major Historic Earthquakes
Year Location Deaths Magnitude
1556 China 8.0
5,30,00
0
1906 San 700 7.9
Francisco
1960 S. Chile 9.5
2,230

1964 Alaska 9.2


131

1976 China 7,00,00 7.8


Size of
Earthquakes
Magnitude and Intensity
Intensity
 How Strong Earthquake Feels to
Observer
 Qualitative assessment of the kinds of
damage done by an earthquake
 Depends on distance to earthquake &
strength of earthquake
 Determined from the intensity of shaking and
damage from the earthquake
Magnitude
 Related to Energy Release.
 Quantitative measurement of the amount of
energy released by an earthquake
 Depends on the size of the fault that breaks
 Determined from Seismic Records
Measuring Earthquakes
 Seismogram is visual record of arrival time
and magnitude of shaking associated with
seismic wave. Analysis of seismogram allows
measurement of size of earthquake.
 Mercalli Intensity scale
 Measured by the amount of damage caused
in human terms- I (low) to XII (high);
drawback: inefficient in uninhabited area
 Richter Scale- (logarithmic scale)
 Magnitude- based on amplitude of the
waves
 Related to earthquake total energy
Intensity

How Strong Earthquake Feels to


Observer
Depends On:
 Distance to Quake

 Geology

 Type of Building

 Observer!

Varies from Place to Place


 Modified Mercalli Scale- 1 to 12
http://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/eqscale.htm
Earthquake
Magnitude
 ML - Local (Richter) magnitude
 MW - Seismic Moment magnitude
 MS - Surface wave magnitude
 MB- Body wave magnitude
Richter Scale
 Richter Scale
 Amplitude scale is logarithmic (10-fold
increase for every whole number increase)
 Scale 1 ---- 0.001 mm; 2---- 0.01 mm; 5----
10mm; 7---- 1 meter
 Earthquake Energy: Each whole number
represents a 33-fold increase in Energy;
Energy difference between 3 & 6 means
~1000 times
 Drawbacks:
 Based on Antiquated Wood-Anderson
Seismographs
 Measurement Past Magnitude 7.0
ineffective – Requires Estimates
Local Magnitude of Earthquake
 Magnitude
 Richter scale measures the magnitude of an earthquake,

based on seismogram independent of intensity


 Amplitude of the largest wave produced by an event is

corrected for distance and assigned a value on an open-


ended logarithmic scale
 The equation for Richter Magnitude is:

ML = log10A(mm) + (Distance correction factor)


Here A is the amplitude, in millimeters, measured directly
from the photographic paper record of the Wood-Anderson
seismometer, a special type of instrument. The distance
factor comes from a table given by Richter (1958).
Richter’s Local Magnitude
Right side diagram (nomogram)
demonstrates how to use Richter's
original method to measure a
seismogram for a magnitude
estimate After you measure the
wave amplitude you have to take its
logarithm and scale it according to
the distance of the seismometer
from the earthquake, estimated by
the S-P time difference. The S-P
time, in seconds, makes t. The
equation behind this nomogram,
used by Richter in Southern
California, is:

M = log A(mm) +3 log [8 t (sec)]-2.93


Richter Scale: Related to
intensity
 M=1 to 3: Recorded on local seismographs,
but generally not felt
 M= 3 to 4: Often felt, no damage
 M=5: Felt widely, slight damage near
epicenter
 M=6: Damage to poorly constructed buildings
and other structures within 10's km
 M=7: "Major" earthquake, causes serious
damage up to ~100 km (recent Gujarat
earthquake).
 M=8: "Great" earthquake, great destruction,
loss of life over several 100 km
 M=9: Rare great earthquake, major damage
over a large region over 1000 km
Surface Wave
Magnitude
Richter’s local magnitude does not distinguish between
different types of waves.
At large distances from epicenter, ground motion is
dominated by surface waves.
Gutenberg and Richter (1936) developed a magnitude
scale based on the amplitude of Rayleigh waves.

Surface wave magnitude Ms = log10A + 1.66 log10 +2


A = Maximum ground displacement in micrometers
= Distance of seismograph from the epicenter, in degrees.
Surface wave magnitude is used for shallow earthquakes
Body Wave Magnitude
For deep focus earthquakes, reliable measurement of
amplitude of surface waves is difficult.
Amplitudes of P-waves are not strongly affected by focal
depth. Gutenberg (1945) developed a magnitude scale
based on the amplitude of the first few cycles of P- waves,
which is useful for measuring the size of deep earthquakes.

Body wave magnitude Mb = log10A – log10T +0.01  + 5.9


A = Amplitude of P-waves in micrometers
T = Period of P wave
= Distance of seismograph from the epicenter, in degrees.
Seismic - Moment
Magnitude
A Seismograph Measures Ground
Motion at One Instant But --
 A Really Great Earthquake Lasts Minutes
 Releases Energy over Hundreds of
Kilometers
 Need to Sum Energy of Entire Record
 Moment magnitude scale based on
seismic moment (Kanamori, 1977) and
doesn’t depend upon ground shaking
levels.
 It’s the only magnitude scale efficient for
any size of earthquake.
Moment Magnitude
 Moment-Magnitude Scale
 Seismic Moment = Strength of Rock x
Fault Area x Total amount of Slip along
Rupture
M0 =  A D

Moment Magnitude Mw = 2/3 x [log10M0(dyne-cm) –16]


 Measurement Analysis requires Time
Seismic Energy
Both the magnitude and the seismic moment are related to
the amount of energy that is radiated by an earthquake. Dr.
Gutenberg and Richter 1956), developed a relationship
between magnitude and energy. Their relationship is:

logES = 11.8 + 1.5Ms


Energy ES in ergs from the surface wave magnitude Ms. ES
is not the total ``intrinsic'' energy of the earthquake,
transferred from sources such as gravitational energy or to
sinks such as heat energy. It is only the amount radiated
from the earthquake as seismic waves, which ought to be a
small fraction of the total energy transferred during the
earthquake process.
Local Magnitude - Seismic Energy
correlation

Gujarat (2001)

Size of an earthquake using the Richter’s Local Magnitude Scale is shown on the left
hand side of the figure above. The larger the number, the bigger the earthquake. The
scale on the right hand side of the figure represents the amount of high explosive
This figure was produced in cooperation with the US Geological
required to produce the energy released by Survey,
the earthquake.
and the University of Memphis private foundations
Frequency of
earthquakes
Ground Motion
Strong Ground Motion
Evaluation of the effects of earthquakes requires the
study of ground motion
Engineering Seismology deals with vibrations related
to earthquakes, which are strong enough to cause
damage to people and environment
The ground motions produced by earthquakes at any
particular point have 3 translational and 3 rotational
components.
In practice, generally translational components of
ground motion are measured and the rotational
components are ignored.
Strong motion
seismographs
Seismographs  Designed to pickup strong,
in India high-amplitude shaking
close to quake source
 Most common type is the
accelerometer
 Directly records ground
acceleration
 Recording is triggered by
first waves
 Difficult to differentiate P,S
and surface waves
Seismogram interpretation
 Seismograms can
provide information on
 epicenter location
 Magnitude of
earthquake
 source properties
 Most seismograms will
record P, S & surface
waves
 First arrival is P wave
 After a pause of several
- surface waves follow and may
seconds/10s seconds
the higher amplitude S continue for tens of seconds
wave arrives - surface waves are slower but
 Defines S-P interval persist to greater distances than
P & S waves
Wave terminology
 Wave amplitude
 height of a wave
above its zero
position
 Wave period
 time taken to
complete one cycle
of motion
 Frequency
 number of cycles
per second (Hertz)
Human ear can detect frequencies
 felt shaking during
quake has
down to 15 Hz
frequencies from 20
down to 1 Hertz
Ground Motion Recording
The actual ground motion at a
given location is derived from
instrumentally recorded motions.
The most commonly used
instruments for engineering
purposes are strong motion
accelerographs/ accelerometers.
These instruments record the
acceleration time history of
ground motion at a site, called an
accelerogram.
By proper analysis of a recorded accelerogram to account for
instrument distortion and base line correction, the resulting corrected
acceleration record can be used by engineers to obtain ground
velocity and ground displacement by appropriate integration.
Accelerometer
Types of Accelerometers:
Electronic : transducers
produce voltage output
Servo controlled: use
suspended mass with
displacement transducer
Principle: An acceleration a will cause the
Piezoelectric: Mass mass to be displaced by ma/k or
attached to a piezoelectric alternatively, if we observe a displacement
of x, we know that the mass has undergone
material, which develops an acceleration of kx/m.
electric charge on surface.
Generally accelerometers are placed in three orthogonal
directions to measure accelerations in three directions at any
time. Sometimes geophones (velocity transducers) are
attached to accelerometers to measure the seismic wave
Ground Motion Parameters
An earthquake history can be described using amplitude, frequency content,
and duration.
Amplitude: The most common measures of amplitude are
PGA: Peak ground acceleration (Horizontal- PHA & Vertical- PVA)
EPA: Effective peak acceleration
PGV: Peak ground velocity ( PHV & PVV)
EPV: Effective peak velocity
PGD: Peak ground displacement

Frequency Content: The frequency content of an earthquake history is often


described using Fourier Spectra, Power spectra and response spectra.

Duration: The duration of an earthquake history is somewhat dependent on


the magnitude of the earthquake.
Measurement of ground
acceleration
A seismograph can be illustrated by a mass-spring-dashpot
single degree of freedom system.

The response of such system for shaking is given by


2 u u
m 2  c  k u  m u g 0
t t
Where u is the trace displacement (relative displacement between
seismograph and ground), ug is the ground displacement, c is the
damping coefficient, k is the stiffness coefficient.
Measurement of ground
acceleration
If the ground displacement is simple harmonic at a circular
frequency g , the ground acceleration amplitude is
calculated from the trace displacement amplitude using the
u 1
equation: 
 2u g  2
0 1     4
2 2 2
2
t 2

Where 0 is the undamped natural circular frequency

 is tuning ratio, given by g/ 0


c
 Is damping ratio, given by
2 k
m
Amplitude Parameters

From the time histories of acceleration, velocity and


displacement are obtained by integrating the acceleration
records. All other amplitude parameters are calculated from
these time histories.
Amplitude Parameters

Effective Acceleration: The acceleration which is effective


in causing structural damage. This depends on size of
loaded area, weight, damping and stiffness properties of
structure and its location with respect to epicenter.

Sustained Maximum Acceleration: The absolute values of


highest accelerations that sustained for 3 and 5 cycles in
acceleration time history are defined as 3-cycle sustained
and 5-cycle sustained accelerations respectively.
Frequency Content
Parameters
The frequency content of an earthquake history is
often described using Fourier Spectra, Power spectra
and response spectra.
Fourier Spectra
A periodic function (for which an earthquake history
is an approximation) can be written as

x(t ) c0  cn sin(nt  n )
n 1

where cn and n are the amplitude and phase angle


respectively of the nth harmonic in the Fourier series.
Frequency Content
Parameters
The Fourier amplitude spectrum is a plot of cn versus
n
Shows how the amplitude of the motion varies
with frequency.
Expresses the frequency content of a motion
The Fourier phase spectrum is a plot of n versus n
Phase angles control the times at which the
peaks of harmonic motion occur.
Fourier phase spectrum is influenced by the
variation of ground motion with time.
Fourier Amplitude Spectrum
The Fourier amplitude spectra of
actual earthquakes are often plotted

Fourier Amplitude (log)


on logarithmic scales, so that their
characteristic shapes can be clearly
distinguished from the smoothed
curves.
Two frequencies that mark the range
of frequencies for largest Fourier fc fmax
acceleration amplitude are corner Frequency (log)
frequency (fc) and cutoff frequency
(fmax)
fc is a very important parameter because it is inversely
proportional to the cube root of seismic moment, thus indicating
that large earthquakes produce greater low-frequency motions.
Frequency Content
Parameters
Power Spectra
The power spectrum is a plot of G()versus  n . The
power spectrum density (PSD) function is defined by
the following equation and is closely related to the
Fourier amplitude spectrum:
1 2
G ( )  cn
π Td

where G( ) is the PSD, Td is the duration of the


ground motion, and cn is the amplitude of the nth
harmonic in the Fourier series. PSD function is used to
characterize an earthquake history as a random
process.
Frequency Content
Response Spectra
Parameters
Response spectra are
widely used in
earthquake engineering.
The response spectrum
describes the maximum
response of a SDOF
oscillator to a particular
input motion as a
function of frequency
and damping ratio. The
response spectra from
two sites (one rock and
the other soil) are
shown in figure.
Duration
Duration of an earthquake is very important parameter that
influences the amount of damage due to earthquake. A strong
motion of very high amplitude of short duration may not cause
as much damage to a structure as a motion with moderate
amplitude with long duration can cause. This is because the
ground motion with long duration causes more load reversals,
which is important in the degradation of stiffness of the
structures and in building up pore pressures in loose saturated
soils.
Duration represents the time required for the release of
accumulated strain energy along a fault, thus increases with
increase in magnitude of earthquake.
Relative duration does not depend on the peak values. It is the
time interval between the points at which 0.05% and 0.95% of
the total energy has been recorded.
Duration
Bracketed duration is the measure of time between the first
and last exceedence of a threshold acceleration 0.05 g.
Other Spectral Parameters
RMS acceleration : This is the parameter that includes
the effects of amplitude and frequency, defined as
1 Td
a t  dt
2
arms 
Td 0
Where a(t) is the acceleration over the time domain and T d
is the duration of strong motion
AI - The Arias Intensity is a measure of the total energy at
the recording station and is proportional to the sum of the
squared acceleration. It is defined as
  2
AI  a  t  dt
2g 0
Other Spectral Parameters
SI - The Spectrum Intensity is defined as the integral of the
psuedo-Spectral velocity curve (also known as the velocity
response spectrum), integrated between periods of 0.1 - 2.5
seconds. These quantities are motivated by the need to
examine the response of structures to ground motion, as
many structures have fundamental periods between 0.1 and
2.5 sec. The SI can be calculated for any structural damping
ratio.
Dominant frequency of ground motion (F_d) is defined as
the frequency corresponding to the peak value in the
amplitude spectrum. Thus, F_d indicates the frequency for
which the ground motion has the most energy. The amplitude
spectrum has to be smoothed before determining F_d.
Other Spectral Parameters
Predominant Period (Tp): Period of

Fourier Amplitude
vibration corresponding to the maximum GM1
value of the Fourier amplitude spectrum.
GM2
This parameter represents the frequency
content of the motion. The predominant
period for two different ground motions
with different frequency contents can be Tp
same, making the estimation of Period
frequency content crude. Tp is same for the two
ground motions, though
Bandwidth BW - of the dominant the frequency content is
frequency; measured where the different
amplitude falls to 0.707 (1 /sq. root 2) of
the amplitude of the dominant frequency.
Again, this is based on a smoothed
amplitude spectrum.
Spatial variability of ground
motions
The ground motion parameters at any site depend upon the
magnitude of earthquake and the distance of the site from
epicenter.
The ground motion parameters measured at a site have been
used to develop empirical relationships to predict the
parameters as functions of earthquake magnitude and source-
to-site distance. But these predictions are not accurate.
For structures that extend over considerable distance (such as
bridges and pipelines), the ground motion parameters will be
different at different part of the structure, causing differential
movement of the supports. Local variation of ground motion
parameters need to be considered for the design of such
structures.

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