See 2
See 2
See 2
to
Engineering
Seismology
Definitions
Plate Tectonics
Faults
Seismic Waves
Earthquake Hazards
Size of Earthquakes
Ground Motion
Response Spectra
Seismic Design
Seismology is the branch of Geophysics
concerned with the study and analysis of
Earthquakes and the science of energy
propagation through the Earth's crust.
Engineering Seismology is concerned with the
solution of engineering problems connected with
the Earthquakes. Seismology is extremely
important because:
Study of earthquakes gives us important clues
about the earth’s interior
Understanding earthquakes allows us to
minimize the damage and loss of life
Earthquake engineering is concerned
with the design and construction of all
kinds of civil and building engineering
systems to withstand earthquake
shaking. Earthquake engineers, in the
course of their work, are faced with
many uncertainties and must use
sound engineering judgment to
develop safe solutions to challenging
problems. They also rely heavily on
state-of-the-art techniques in
computing, materials science,
laboratory testing and field monitoring.
What is an earthquake?
An earthquake is the vibration of
Earth produced by the rapid release of
accumulated energy in elastically
strained rocks
Energy released radiates in all directions
waves
Sensitive instruments around the world
Values in brackets represent the approximate thickness of each layer
Layers of the Earth
The earth is divided into four main layers: Inner core, outer
core, mantle and crust.
The core is composed mostly of iron (Fe) and is so hot that the
outer core is molten, with about 10% sulphur (S). The inner
core is under such extreme pressure that it remains solid.
Most of the Earth's mass is in the mantle, which is composed
of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), aluminum (Al), silicon (Si), and
oxygen (O) silicate compounds. At over 1000 degrees C, the
mantle is solid but can deform slowly in a plastic manner.
The crust is much thinner than any of the other layers, and is
composed of the least dense calcium (Ca) and sodium (Na)
aluminum-silicate minerals. Being relatively cold, the crust is
rocky and brittle, so it can fracture in earthquakes.
Continental drift
Theory that continents and plates
move on the surface of the Earth
proposed by Alfred Wegener in
1915.
Alfred Wegener
Maps by Wegener (1915),
showing continental drift
Theory of continental drift
Evidence for continental
drift
Matching coastlines
Matching mountains
Matching rock types and rock ages
Matching glacier deposits
Matching fossils
Evidence for continental
drift
Matching
coastlines
Evidence for continental
drift
Matching
mountain
ranges
Evidence for continental
drift
Matching
rock types
and ages
of rocks
Evidence for continental
drift
Matching glacier
deposits 300
million years
ago
Evidence for continental
drift
Fossils of of Mesosaurus
(aquatic reptile) found on
both sides of Atlantic
Theory of Plate tectonics
The theory of Plate tectonics was proposed
in 1960s based on the theory of continental
drift.
This is the Unifying theory that explains the
formation and deformation of the Earth’s
surface.
According to this theory, continents are
carried along on huge slabs (plates) on the
Earth’s outermost layer (Lithosphere).
Earth’s outermost layer is divided into 12
major Tectonic Plates (~80 km deep).
These plates move relative to each other a
few centimeters per year.
Earth’s magnetic field
Basic Data used in
formulating plate tectonics:
Magnetic stripes on the sea-
floor. Magnetic field of
Earth reverses on semi-
regular basis. Minerals act
like compass needles and
point towards magnetic
north. “Hot” rocks record the
direction of the magnetic
field as they cool.
Tectonic plates of Earth
Types of plate
boundaries
Divergent plate boundaries: where
plates move apart
Convergent Plate boundaries: where
plates come together
Transform plate boundaries: where
plates slide past each other
Types of plate
boundaries
Divergent (Tension)
Convergent (Compression)
Transform (shearing)
Types of plate
boundaries
Divergent Plate
Boundaries
Plates move away
from each other
(tension)
New lithosphere is
formed
normal faults
Causes volcanism
not very explosive
Convergent Plate
Boundary
Plates move toward
each other
(compression)
lithosphere is
consumed
reverse/thrust
faults
and folds
Mountain building
explosive volcanism
Ocean- Continent
convergent margin
Ocean-continent
plates collide
Ocean plate
subducts below
continent
Forms a
subduction zone
Earthquakes and
volcanoes
Ocean-ocean convergent
margin
2 oceanic plates
collide
One plate dives
(subducts) beneath
other
Forms subduction
zone
Earthquakes and
volcanoes
Continent-continent
convergent margin
2 continental
plates collide
Neither plate
wants to
subduct
Collision zone example: Himalayas
forms high
mountains
Earthquakes,
no volcanoes
Himalayas: Continents
collide
Millions of years ago India and an ancient
ocean called the Tethys Ocean were sat on
a tectonic plate. This plate was moving
northwards towards Asia at a rate of 10
centimeters per year. The Tethys oceanic
crust was being subducted under the
Asian Continent. The ocean got
progressively smaller until about 55 milion
years ago when India 'hit' Asia. Because
both these continental landmasses have
about the same rock density, one plate
could not be subducted under the other.
The pressure of the impinging plates could
only be relieved by thrusting skyward,
contorting the collision zone, and forming
the jagged Himalayan peaks
Transform plate margin
Two plates slide
past each other
strike slip faults.
Lithosphere is
neither consumed
nor destroyed.
Earthquakes, no
volcanoes
Responsible for
most of the
earthquakes
What drives plate
movement?
Ultimately: heat transported from
core and mantle to surface
Heat transported by convection
Core is ~5,000°C and surface is
~0°C
Where mantle rises: rifting
Where mantle dives: subduction
zones
Types of faults
and
seismic waves
Elastic Rebound Theory
This theory was discovered by making
measurements at a number of points
across a fault.
shear)
Normal Dip-slip fault
A strike-slip fault
Strike-Slip Fault – Left
Lateral
Strike-Slip Fault – Right
Lateral
Oblique-slip fault
Displacement in both
vertical and horizontal
directions
An oblique-slip fault
Blind/Hidden faults
Sequence of Events
1) Tectonic loading of faults
2) Earthquakes
3) Seismic waves
4) Shaking (ground motion)
5) Structural failure
Seismic Waves
(Earthquake’s energy is transmitted through
the earth as seismic waves)
Two types of seismic waves
Body waves- transmit energy through
earth’s interior
Primary (P) wave- rocks vibrate parallel to
direction of wave
Compression and expansion (slinky
example)
Secondary (S) wave- rocks move perpendicular
to wave direction
Rock shearing (rope-like or ‘wave’ in a
stadium)
Surface waves- transmit energy along
earth’s surface
Rock moves from side to side like snake
Rolling pattern like ocean wave
Primary
waves
P-waves, compressional or
longitudinal.
Typicalcrustal velocity: 6 km/s (
~13,500 mph)
Travel through solids, liquids, or
gases
Material movement is in the same Even for P waves (which
direction as wave movement can travel all the way
Behavior: Cause dilation and through) we see some
contraction (compression) of the changes in the path at
earth material through which certain points within
they pass. Earth. This is due to the
Arrival:
They arrive first on a discontinuities present at
seismogram. different boundaries in
earth structure
Secondary
waves
S waves (secondary)
Typical crustal velocity: 3
km/s ( ~6,750 mph)
Behavior: Cause shearing
and stretching of the earth
material through which
they pass. Generally cause
the most severe shaking;
very damaging to S-wave velocity drops to
structures.
zero at the core-mantle
Travel through solids only
boundary or Gutenberg
shear waves - move material
perpendicular to wave Discontinuity
movement
Arrival: Second on a
seismogram.
Shadow Zone - no earthquake
Variation of P and S wave velocities within the earth
1. Measure time
between P and S
wave on
seismogram
2. Use travel-
time graph to get
distance to
epicenter
Global Travel Time Curve
3-circle method: 3-circle steps:
1) Read S-P time from 3
seismograms.
north
2) Compute distance for
D1 each event/recording
D2 station pair (D1, D2, D3)
using S-P time formula.
3) Draw each circle of
radius Di on map.
4) Overlapping point is
the event location.
D3
Assumption: Source is
relatively shallow;
epicenter is relatively
close to hypocenter.
Earthquake
Hazards
Major Hazards of
Earthquakes
Ground Motion: Shakes structures causing
them to collapse
Liquefaction: Conversion of formally stable
cohesionless soils to a fluid mass, causing
damage to the structures
Landslides: Triggered by the vibrations
Fire : Indirect result of earthquakes triggered
by broken gas and power lines
Tsunamis: large waves created by the
instantaneous displacement of the sea floor
during submarine faulting
Damage due to
Earthquakes
Earthquakes have varied effects, including changes in
geologic features, damage to man-made structures
and impact on human and animal life.
Northridge, CA 1994
Earthquake
Effects -
Ground Shaking
Northridge, CA 1994
Earthquake Effects - Ground
Shaking
Landers, CA 1992
Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking
Collapse of Buildings
Earthquake Destruction: Ground Shaking
Turnnagin Heights,Alaska,1964
Earthquake Destruction: Liquefaction
Earthquakes sometimes
cause fire due to broken gas
lines, contributing to the loss
of life and economy.
Tsunamis can be generated when the sea floor abruptly deforms and
vertically displaces the overlying water.
The water above the deformed area is displaced from its equilibrium
position. Waves are formed as the displaced water mass, which acts
under the influence of gravity, attempts to regain its equilibrium.
Tsunami travels at a speed that is related to the water depth - hence, as
the water depth decreases, the tsunami slows.
The tsunami's energy flux, which is dependent on both its wave speed
and wave height, remains nearly constant.
Consequently, as the tsunami's speed diminishes as it travels into
shallower water, its height grows. Because of this effect, a tsunami,
imperceptible at sea, may grow to be several meters or more in height
near the coast and can flood a vast area.
Tsunami
Tsunami Movement: ~600 mph in deep water
~250 mph in medium depth
water
~35 mph in shallow water
Earthquake Destruction: Tsunamis
Geology
Type of Building
Observer!
Gujarat (2001)
Size of an earthquake using the Richter’s Local Magnitude Scale is shown on the left
hand side of the figure above. The larger the number, the bigger the earthquake. The
scale on the right hand side of the figure represents the amount of high explosive
This figure was produced in cooperation with the US Geological
required to produce the energy released by Survey,
the earthquake.
and the University of Memphis private foundations
Frequency of
earthquakes
Ground Motion
Strong Ground Motion
Evaluation of the effects of earthquakes requires the
study of ground motion
Engineering Seismology deals with vibrations related
to earthquakes, which are strong enough to cause
damage to people and environment
The ground motions produced by earthquakes at any
particular point have 3 translational and 3 rotational
components.
In practice, generally translational components of
ground motion are measured and the rotational
components are ignored.
Strong motion
seismographs
Seismographs Designed to pickup strong,
in India high-amplitude shaking
close to quake source
Most common type is the
accelerometer
Directly records ground
acceleration
Recording is triggered by
first waves
Difficult to differentiate P,S
and surface waves
Seismogram interpretation
Seismograms can
provide information on
epicenter location
Magnitude of
earthquake
source properties
Most seismograms will
record P, S & surface
waves
First arrival is P wave
After a pause of several
- surface waves follow and may
seconds/10s seconds
the higher amplitude S continue for tens of seconds
wave arrives - surface waves are slower but
Defines S-P interval persist to greater distances than
P & S waves
Wave terminology
Wave amplitude
height of a wave
above its zero
position
Wave period
time taken to
complete one cycle
of motion
Frequency
number of cycles
per second (Hertz)
Human ear can detect frequencies
felt shaking during
quake has
down to 15 Hz
frequencies from 20
down to 1 Hertz
Ground Motion Recording
The actual ground motion at a
given location is derived from
instrumentally recorded motions.
The most commonly used
instruments for engineering
purposes are strong motion
accelerographs/ accelerometers.
These instruments record the
acceleration time history of
ground motion at a site, called an
accelerogram.
By proper analysis of a recorded accelerogram to account for
instrument distortion and base line correction, the resulting corrected
acceleration record can be used by engineers to obtain ground
velocity and ground displacement by appropriate integration.
Accelerometer
Types of Accelerometers:
Electronic : transducers
produce voltage output
Servo controlled: use
suspended mass with
displacement transducer
Principle: An acceleration a will cause the
Piezoelectric: Mass mass to be displaced by ma/k or
attached to a piezoelectric alternatively, if we observe a displacement
of x, we know that the mass has undergone
material, which develops an acceleration of kx/m.
electric charge on surface.
Generally accelerometers are placed in three orthogonal
directions to measure accelerations in three directions at any
time. Sometimes geophones (velocity transducers) are
attached to accelerometers to measure the seismic wave
Ground Motion Parameters
An earthquake history can be described using amplitude, frequency content,
and duration.
Amplitude: The most common measures of amplitude are
PGA: Peak ground acceleration (Horizontal- PHA & Vertical- PVA)
EPA: Effective peak acceleration
PGV: Peak ground velocity ( PHV & PVV)
EPV: Effective peak velocity
PGD: Peak ground displacement
Fourier Amplitude
vibration corresponding to the maximum GM1
value of the Fourier amplitude spectrum.
GM2
This parameter represents the frequency
content of the motion. The predominant
period for two different ground motions
with different frequency contents can be Tp
same, making the estimation of Period
frequency content crude. Tp is same for the two
ground motions, though
Bandwidth BW - of the dominant the frequency content is
frequency; measured where the different
amplitude falls to 0.707 (1 /sq. root 2) of
the amplitude of the dominant frequency.
Again, this is based on a smoothed
amplitude spectrum.
Spatial variability of ground
motions
The ground motion parameters at any site depend upon the
magnitude of earthquake and the distance of the site from
epicenter.
The ground motion parameters measured at a site have been
used to develop empirical relationships to predict the
parameters as functions of earthquake magnitude and source-
to-site distance. But these predictions are not accurate.
For structures that extend over considerable distance (such as
bridges and pipelines), the ground motion parameters will be
different at different part of the structure, causing differential
movement of the supports. Local variation of ground motion
parameters need to be considered for the design of such
structures.