"Introduction To Earthquake and Seismology": Submited BY P Vijay Krishna 1DS06CV045 Guided BY Mrs Jyothi T.K

“INTRODUCTION TO
EARTHQUAKE AND
SEISMOLOGY”
SUBMITED
BY
P VIJAY KRISHNA
1DS06CV045
GUIDED
BY
MRS JYOTHI T.K
What Is an Earthquake?
 An earthquake is the vibration of Earth

produced by the rapid release of energy.
 It is usually associated with faulting or

breaking of rocks.
 Continuing adjustment of position results

in aftershocks.
 Most of earthquake’s usually occur along
the edges of the tectonic plates.
 About 80% of earthquakes occur along
the rim of pacific ocean, called the ring
of fire.
Causes of earthquake
 Elastic Rebound Hypothesis

• Most earthquakes are produced by the rapid
release of elastic energy stored in rock that has
been subjected to great forces.
• When the strength of the rock is exceeded, it
suddenly breaks, causing the vibrations of an
earthquake.
Elastic Rebound Hypothesis
Earth and its Interior
 The Earth's interior is composed of four

layers, three solid and one liquid—not
magma but molten metal, nearly as hot
as the surface of the sun.
Mantle
Outer core
Core
 Crust
• Thin, rocky outer layer
• Varies in thickness
- Roughly 7 km in oceanic regions
- Continental crust averages 8–40 km
- Exceeds 70 km in mountainous regions
 Mantle
• Below crust to a depth of 2900 kilometers
• Composition of the uppermost mantle is the
igneous rock (changes at greater depths)
• Composed of iron and magnesium silicates
• Temperature ranges up to 1600 degree
 Core
• Below mantle
• Sphere with a radius of 3486 kilometers
• Composed of an iron-nickel alloy
• Average density of nearly 11 g/cm3
• Temperature ranges from 2000-5000 degree
 Inner Core
• Sphere with a radius of 1216 km
• Behaves like a solid
 Outer Core
• Liquid layer
• 2270 km thick
• Convective flow of metallic iron within generates
Earth’s magnetic field
Convective Currents in Mantle
Rift Valley (kenya)
Basic Terminology
• The point within Earth where faulting begins is the

focus, or hypocenter
• The point directly above the focus on the surface is
the epicenter
• Faults are fractures in Earth where movement has
occurred.
• An aftershock is a small earthquake that follows the
main earthquake.
• A foreshock is a small earthquake that often
precedes a major earthquake.
Focus, Epicenter, and Fault
What are Seismic Waves?
• Response of material to the arrival of

energy fronts released by rupture.
• Two types:
Body waves
P and S
Surface waves
R and L
Body Waves
 p waves
- Are push-pull waves that push (compress)
and pull (expand) in the direction that the
waves travel
- Travel through solids, liquids, and gases
- Have the greatest velocity of all
earthquake waves
Body Waves
 S waves
- Seismic waves that travel along Earth’s outer
layer
- Shake particles at right angles to the direction
that they travel
- Travel only through solids
- Slower velocity than P waves
Surface Waves
 R and L waves
• Travel just below or along the ground
surface
• Slower then the body waves; rolling and
side-to-side movement
• Especially damaging to buildings
How is an Epicenter located?
 Seismic wave behavior

• P waves arrive first, then S waves, then L
and R waves
• Average speed for all these waves are known
• After an earthquake, the difference in arrival
time at a seismograph station can be used to
calculate the distance from the seismogram to
the epicenter.
Distance-time graph
How is an Epicenter located?
• Three seismograph stations

are needed to locate the
epicenter of an earthquake
• A circle where radius equals
the distance to the epicenter is
drawn
• The intersection of the circles
locates the epicenter
Measuring Earthquakes
Basic terminology
• Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the actual
size of the earthquake.
• Intensity is a qualitative measure of the actual
shaking at a location during earthquake.
• Seismographs are instruments that record
earthquake waves.
• Seismograms are traces of amplified, electronically
record ground motion made by seismographs.
 Historically, scientists have used two
different types of measurements to
describe the size of an earthquake
—intensity and magnitude.
 Richter Scale
• Based on the amplitude of the largest seismic
wave
• Each unit of Richter magnitude equates to
roughly a 32-fold energy increase
• Does not estimate adequately the size of
very large earthquakes
Effects of Earthquakes
Seismic Vibrations
 The damage to buildings and other structures from
earthquake waves depends on several factors.
These factors include the intensity and duration of
the vibrations, the nature of the material on which
the structure is built, and the design of the
structure.
Seismic Vibrations
 Liquefaction
• Saturated material turns fluid
• Underground objects may float to surface
Tsunamis
 Cause of Tsunamis
• A tsunami triggered by an earthquake occurs
where a slab of the ocean floor is displaced
vertically along a fault.
• A tsunami also can occur when the vibration of a
quake sets an underwater landslide into motion.
• Tsunami is the Japanese word for “seismic sea
wave.”
Movement of a Tsunami
Other Dangers
 Landslides
• With many earthquakes, the greatest damage
to structures is from landslides and ground
subsidence, or the sinking of the ground
triggered by vibrations.
 Fire
• In the San Francisco earthquake of 1906, most
of the destruction was caused by fires that
started when gas and electrical lines were cut.
HAARP
 High-Frequency Active Auroral Research

Program
Conspiracy theory
• Location: Alaska
• Use: substitute for low frequency transmitters
(ELF)
• Established: 1995 by US military
• Power consumption: 1,700 billion watts
Conclusion
All though we still can’t predict when an

earthquake will happen, we have learnt
much about earthquake as well as earth
itself from studying them. We have learnt
how to pin point the location, accurately
measure their sizes and how to build
flexible structures to protect and save our
lives.
REFERENCES
• Anil k. chopra (2005), “Dynamics of

structures”, second edition
• C. V. R. Murty and Andrew W. Charleson
(2006), “Earthquake design concepts”, first
edition
• Dr. D.S. Kaushal, “Rashtriya atlas”

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"Introduction To Earthquake and Seismology": Submited BY P Vijay Krishna 1DS06CV045 Guided BY Mrs Jyothi T.K

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“INTRODUCTION TO

 An earthquake is the vibration of Earth

 It is usually associated with faulting or

 Continuing adjustment of position results

 Elastic Rebound Hypothesis

 The Earth's interior is composed of four

• The point within Earth where faulting begins is the

• Response of material to the arrival of

 Seismic wave behavior

• Three seismograph stations

 High-Frequency Active Auroral Research

All though we still can’t predict when an

• Anil k. chopra (2005), “Dynamics of

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