Earthquake Resistant

Architecture

Sri Manakula Vinayagar School of Architecture –Smvec Notes complied by Ar.Balaaji

Unit –I Fundamentals of Earthquake
Earth's structure, seismic waves, plate tectonics theory, origin of continents, seismic zones in

India. Predictability, intensity and measurement of earthquake. Basic terms- fault line, focus,

epicenter, focal depth etc. 7

 Unit -1 Fundamentals of Earthquake

What is Earthquake ?

An earthquake is the sudden release of energy in the earth

crust that creates the seismic waves .

And also Sudden and rapid Shaking of earth caused by

breaking and shifting of rocks beneath the earth surfaces

Points in earthquake .
• These are natural disasters of a general unpredictable
nature .

• It Can range from size of km from the ground surface .

• The effects of earthquake vary upon the magnitude and

intensity .
 Earthquake causes
• Rotation of the earth and some factors of the plates constantly move which in results
causes earthquake .

• These plates are considered of many plates and fault .

• Sudden changes in the crust area or changes in the rock underneath the earth and
also by the focus of the earth which causes the earthquake and seismic waves to
propagate in the earth surface

• Based on the magnitude , the severity of the earthquake differs.

• Rock fall , Explosion and volcanic eruptions can cause a earthquake .

 Terms in earthquake
Seismic Waves : the Wave form of energy in the earthquake which moves up and down
or outwards form the base point called focus point .

Epic center : the point above the focus is called as epic center . It is the direct point
from the focus directly on the earth surface.

Focus : The focus is the place inside Earth's crust where an earthquake originates. The
point on the Earth's surface directly above the focus is the epicenter. When energy is
released at the focus, seismic waves travel outward from that point in all directions

Tectonic plates : It is a large , massive and irregular type of rock found below the earth
surface , consists of oceanic and continental lithosphere .

Magnitude : Magnitude is a measure of earthquake size and remains unchanged with

distance from the earthquake.
Intensity :Intensity measures the degree of shaking caused by an earthquake at a given
place and decreases with distance from the earthquake epicentre.
 Types of earthquake
According to the Depth of earthquakes

• Shallow earthquake – the depth of the focus will be 60 km

• Intermediate Earthquake - the depth of the focus will be 60 km -300 km

• Deep Earthquake – More than 300 km of the focus depth

According to the Fault of earthquakes

• Interplate Earthquake – It is between the boundaries of earthquake .

• Intraplate Earthquake – It is a variety of earthquake . It acts inside the same techonic plates
 Types of earthquake
According to the forces of Earthquake

• Collapse earthquake : These are very small in underground caverns and

mines that are caused by seismic waves produced form the explosion of the

surface .

• Volcanic earthquake : this is form the volcanoes which occur from the

tectonic forces whch results in conjunction of volcanic activity .

• Collapse Earthquake . It is in the mines which can be because of explosion in

the surface
 EARTH STRUCTURE.

The structure of the earth is divided into four major components:

• The crust,
• The mantle
• The outer core,
• and the inner core.
Each layer has a unique chemical composition, physical state, and can impact
life on Earth's surface. Movement in the mantle caused by variations in heat
from the core, cause the plates to shift, which can cause earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions.
 Earth Crust
• Earth's crust is Earth's thin outer shell of rock, regarding for less than 1% of Earth's

radius and volume.

• It is the top component of the lithosphere, a division of Earth's layers that includes

the crust and the upper part of the mantle.

• Earth's crust is composed of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The

most abundant rocks in the crust are igneous, which are formed by the cooling of

magma. Earth's crust is rich in igneous rocks such as granite and basalt
 Mantle

Earth's mantle extends to a depth of 2,890 km, making it the

planet's thickest layer. The mantle is divided into upper and lower

mantle separated by a transition zone. The lowest part of the

mantle next to the core-mantle boundary is known as the D″ (D-

double-prime) layer.
 Core
Earth's outer core is a fluid layer about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) thick
and composed of mostly iron and nickel that lies above Earth's solid
inner core and below its mantle.
Its outer boundary lies 2,890 km (1,800 mi) beneath Earth's
surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is
located approximately 5,150 km (3,200 mi) beneath the Earth's
surface.
Earth's inner core is the innermost geologic layer of the planet
Earth.
Seismic
wave
Seismic waves are caused by the sudden movement of
materials within the Earth, such as slip along a fault during an
earthquake.

Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through Earth's

layers, and are a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,
magma movement, large landslides and large man-made
explosions that give out low-frequency acoustic energy.

Seismic wave fields are recorded by a seismometer,

hydrophone (in water), or accelerometer.
Forms of
waves
The waves are classified as the Two waves

I. Body waves (2d waves).

II. Surface waves ( 3 d waves ) .
Body waves primarily classified into primary and secondary
waves.
Surface waves primarily classified into love waves and
Rayleigh waves .
Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth.

Surface waves travel across the surface. Surface waves decay

more slowly with distance than body waves which travel in
three dimensions.
Particle motion of surface waves is larger than that of body
waves, so surface waves tend to cause more damage.
Body
waves
Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth along paths controlled by the
material properties in terms of density and modulus (stiffness).
The density and modulus, in turn, vary according to temperature, composition, and material
phase. This effect resembles the refraction of light waves.
Two types of particle motion result in two types of body waves: Primary and Secondary
waves.

Primary waves Secondary waves

 Primary waves-2d
Primary waves (P-waves) are compressional waves that are longitudinal in
nature.
P-waves are pressure waves that travel faster than other waves through
the earth to arrive at seismograph stations first, hence the name
"Primary".
Secondary waves
Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that are transverse in nature.
Following an earthquake event, S-waves arrive at seismograph stations
after the faster-moving P-waves and displace the ground perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
Depending on the propagation direction, the wave can take on different
surface characteristics; for example, in the case of horizontally polarized S
waves, the ground moves alternately to one side and then the other.
 Surface waves- (3d
) surface waves.
Seismic surface waves travel along the Earth's surface. They can be classified as a form of
mechanical
They are called surface waves, as they diminish as they get further from the surface. They travel more slowly
than seismic body waves (P and S). In large earthquakes, surface waves can have an amplitude of several
centimeters
Rayleigh waves.
Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface waves that
travel as ripples with motions that are similar to those of waves
on the surface of water (note, however, that the associated
particle motion at shallow depths is retrograde, and that the
restoring force in Rayleigh and in other seismic waves is elastic,
not gravitational as for water waves).
Love waves.
Love waves are horizontally shear waves (SH waves), existing only
in the presence of
A semi infinite medium overlain by an upper layer of finite
thickness

P and S waves in Earth's mantle and core

When an earthquake occurs, seismographs near the epicenter
are able to record both P and S
waves, but those at a greater distance no longer detect the high
frequencies of the first S wave
 Plate Tectonic
•
Theory
The Earth’s crust and upper mantle (i.e lithosphere)are
broken into sections called plates.

• TECTONIC PLATES/ LITHOSPHERIC PLATES

• These are massive, irregularly-shaped slab of solid rock,
generally composed of both continental and oceanic
lithosphere

• The crust and part of the upper mantle = lithosphere

• 5-100 km thick in oceanic areas
• 200 km thickness in continental areas
• Less dense than the material below it, so it “floats”
 Principle of Plate
• Tectonics
The Earth is composed of a mosaic of thin rigid plates (pieces of lithosphere) that move horizontally with respect to one another

• Plates interact with each other along their plate boundaries

• Plate boundaries associated with tectonic activity (mountain building, earthquakes, active
volcanoes)

• Two Types of plates .

• Oceanic plates - plates below the oceans
• Continental plates - plates below the continents Convection Currents

Causes of Plate tectonics .

• Hot magma in the Earth moves toward the surface, cools, then sinks
again.
• Creates convection currents beneath the plates that cause the plates to
move.
 Major tectonic plates
• Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate
• North American plate
• South American plate
• Pacific plate
• India-Australia-New Zealand plate
• Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
• Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate
 Minor tectonic plates
• Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate
• Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate
• Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass
• Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate

• Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of New
Guinea)
• Fuji plate: North-east of Australia.
• Turkish plate,
• Aegean plate (Mediterranean region),
• Caribbean plate,
• Juan de Fuca plate (between Pacific and North American plates)
• Iranian plate.
 The 3 types of plate boundaries

• 1. Divergent

• 2. Convergent

• 3. Transform
fault
 Divergent
• boundary
The divergent boundary is caused by the
Formation of an ocean basin by rifting and sea
floor
The Mid- Atlantic Ridge is a
divergent plate boundary where sea
floor spreading occurs.

The direction of propagation starts

from the convergence in the focus
transmit to the a\earth surface then
deviating from the fault area
Convergent
Boundaries .
There are three styles of Convergent
Plate boundaries .

Continent –Continent Collision

Continent oceanic Crust
 Orgin Of Continents
Simplified model for continental origin and growth is proposed, with the following stages:

(1) An initial geochemical fractionation leads to the concentration of the lithophile elements in the upper 1,000 km.

(2) Lateral variations in the distribution of the heat producing elements in the uppermost mantle localize the sites of continental nuclei.

(3) Continental areas grow mainly by the addition of associated calc-alkaline rocks .
Granodiorités and granites are mainly formed by partial melting, leaving a lower crust. The overall
composition of the continental crust is close to that of calc-alkaline or orogenic andesites.

(4)Depletion of the subcontinental mantle in heat-producing elements terminates the process.

(5)Erosion of shield areas removes and reduces the heat flow to levels below those of present orogenic areas
Geophysical evidence for continental origin and growth may be summarized as follows:

(1)The overall mass of the crust and mantle to a depth of about 500 km is the same on a broad scale
beneath oceans and continents.

(2)The heat flow in shield areas is less than in orogenic areas and the mantle under shield areas is
cooler than under the oceans.

(3)The average continental crust is about 40 km thick. Shield areas are 40–45 km thick and orogenic
areas have thinner crust, typically about 35 km thick, but much thinner (20 km) in areas such as the
Pacific coastal region of California.
A continent is a very large landmass.
A continent is usually separated by water or other natural features, like
mountains.
There are seven continents in the world:
1. Asia
2. Africa
3. North America
4. South America
5. Antarctica
6. Europe
7. Australasia
Continents only cover 29% of the Earth. The rest of the Earth’s surface
is water!
 Seismic Zones in India
India lies at the northwestern end of the IndoAustralian
Plate, which encompasses India, Australia, a major
portion of the Indian Ocean and other smaller
countries..

Three chief tectonic sub-regions of India are the mighty

• Himalayas along the north,
• the plains of the Ganges
• and other rivers, and the peninsula.
Zones Classifications
Zone - II: This is said to be the least active seismic zone.

Zone - III: It is included in the moderate seismic zone.

Zone - IV: This is considered to be the high seismic zone.

Zone - V: It is the highest seismic zone.

Geographical Statistics of India Shows the almost 54 % of the land vulnerable to earthquakes
Monitoring of Earthquakes
Center For Seismology .

Ministry of Earth is nodal agency of government of India dealing with Various activities . It

includes Earthquake monitoring on 24x7 basics including real time seismic monitoring for

early warning of tsunamis .

Operation and maintenance of National seismological networks and local networks

Seismological data Centre ad information services . Earthquake process and

modelling
 Zone 5
• It covers the highest risk zone that suffers hear5tquakes of intensity MSK IX or greater .

• The IS code assigns Zone factor of 0.36.

• The region of Kashmir , the western and central Himalayas , north and middle Bihar , the north east

region and ran of Kutch fall

• Generally the areas having trap rock or basaltic rock prone to earthquakes.
 Zone 4
• This zone is high damage risk zone and covers areas that MSK VIII . The IS code assigns zone factor of

0.24 for zone 4

• The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the country Delhi , Jammu and Kashmir falls in this zone .

• In Bihar the northern part of the state like rakshaul , near the border of Nepal also lies in the zone 4.
Zone 3
• The Andaman and Nicobar islands parts of Kashmir western Himalayas fall
under the Zone 3
• This zone is classified as the moderate damage Zone which is liable to MSK
VIII
• The Is code zone factor is 0.16 .
Zone 2
• This region is loagle to msk VI or less is classified under low damage risk Zone

• The IS code assigns for this zone factor of 0.10

• In India the Souuthern part lies in the zone _II

 Earthquake Prediction
Earthquake Prediction is usually defined as the specifications of time , location and magnitude of a
future earthquake within stated limits .
But some evidents of Upcoming earthquake are following .
• Unusual animal behavior.
• Water levels in wells
• Large scale of Fluctuation of Oil flow from Oil wells
• Temperature Change Uplifting of Earth Surface
• Change in seismic wave velocity.
Intensity of Earthquake
• The intensity of an earthquake at a location is a number that characterizes the

severity of ground shaking at that location by considering the effects of the

shaking on people, on manmade structures, and on the landscape.

• Intensity classified into ten categories : 1- 10

• The danger of the intensity lies in the 6 category to 10 th category ( Severe to

hazardous one of intensity

 Measurement of Earthquake
Based on the magnitude the earthquake measure .
Generally it will be predicted by
• Wave amplitude
• fault Size
• Amount of slip
There are a number of ways to measure the magnitude of an earthquake. Most scales are based on the amplitude of seismic
waves recorded on seismometers. These scales account for the distance between the earthquake and the recording seismometer
so that the calculated magnitude should be about the same no matter where it is measured. Another scale is based on the
physical size of the earthquake fault and the amount of slip that occurred. Then there are also measures of earthquake shaking
intensity.
 Measurement of Earthquake
Seismographic networks measure earthquakes by their magnitude, energy release and intensity.
A seismograph is the primary earthquake measuring instrument. The
seismograph produces a digital graphic recording of the ground motion caused by the seismic waves. The
digital recording is called a seismogram.
Earthquake Measurements.
Earthquake intensity scales describe the severity of an earthquake’s effects on
the Earth's surface, humans, and buildings at different locations in the area of the epicenter. There can be
multiple intensity measurements.

Earthquake Magnitude Scale.

The Richter Scale Moment Magnitude Scale
Earthquake Magnitude Classes
Richter Scale .

The first used widely scale developed by Charles Richter . It is used a formula based on the amplitude of the largest wave

recorded on a specific type of seismometer .Richter Scales does not provide the accurate measurement of earthquakes .

The moment magnitude scale .

The moment magnitude scale is based on the total moment release of the earthquake it is derived from

modelings recordings of the earthquake multiples stations . The moment magnitude is capable of measuring

M8 Class Magnitude

The Mercalli scale Great 8 or more

Mercalli intensity scale is a seismic scale used for measuring the intensity of Earthquake and is distinct Major 7 - 7.9
from moment magnitude reported for an earth quake which is measured of the energy released .
Strong 6 - 6.9

Moderate 5 - 5.9
The intensity is measured not only by magnitude .
Light 4 - 4.9
The small scale is a rough guide to the degree of Modified mercalli intensity scale
Minor 3 -3.9
 Seismograph
• A seismograph is the primary earthquake measuring instrument.

• The seismograph produces a digital graphic recording of the ground motion caused by

the seismic waves.

• The digital recording is called a seismogram. A network of worldwide seismographs

detects and measures the strength and duration of the earthquake's wave .The size of

an earthquake is often descried using the magnitude , which is the amount of

energy released during an earthquake .

• Seismographs are instruments used to record the motion of the ground during an

earthquake. They are installed in the ground throughout the world and operated as

part of a seismographic network

Basic Terms – fault line
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of
rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to each other.
This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake
- or may occur slowly, in the form of creep. Faults may range in
length from a few millimeters to thousands of kilometers

Causes of fault line .

It forms when rock above an inclined fracture plane moves
downward, sliding along the rock on the other side of the
fracture.
Normal faults are often found along divergent plate boundaries,
such as under the ocean where new crust is forming. Long, deep
valleys can also be the result of normal faulting.
Basic Terms – Focus
Focus
The focus is the place inside Earth’s crust where an
earthquake originates. The point on the Earth’s surface
directly above the focus is the epicenter.
When energy is released at the focus, seismic waves
travel outward from that point in all directions.
There are different types of seismic waves, each one
traveling at varying speeds and motions. It's these
waves that you feel during an earthquake.
Basic Terms – Focus
Focus
The focus is the place inside Earth’s crust where an
earthquake originates. The point on the Earth’s surface
directly above the focus is the epicenter.
When energy is released at the focus, seismic waves
travel outward from that point in all directions.
There are different types of seismic waves, each one
traveling at varying speeds and motions. It's these
waves that you feel during an earthquake.
Basic Terms – Epic centre
The epicenter is the point on the earth's surface

vertically above the hypocenter (or focus), point in

the crust where a seismic rupture begins.

The epicenter, epicenter or epicentrum in seismology

is the point on the Earth's surface directly above a

hypocenter or focus, the point where an earthquake

or an underground explosion originates.

Basic Terms – Focal depth
Focal depth
It is the depth from the Earth's surface to the region
where an earthquake's energy originates (the hypocenter
or focus).
•Shallow earthquake: Focal depths <70 km
•Intermediate earthquakes: 70 km<Focal Depth<300 km
•Deep earthquakes: Focal Depth>300 km
The foci of most earthquakes are concentrated in the
crust and upper mantle up to a depth of 700km.
Content beyond syllabus
Earthquake detection in smart phones

• Smartphones have accelerometers, which are tiny devices that help with identifying the direction a

smartphone is oriented, which allows the phone to know how one may hold it or where it is pointed.

Additionally, these devices are also useful for detecting vibrations in nearby areas.

• Using aggregated accelerometer data across many smartphones, many of us can now better access a

large-scale earthquake warning system that informs us within seconds if an earthquake in our area has

occurred and how powerful that earthquake might be.

Usage of accelerometers with phones
• Using accelerometers within phones, on the other hand, may be a sensible, low-cost option given that

a crowdsourcing effort using large groups of smartphones can uses movement patterns and signals

from accelerometers to determine earthquakes.

• Google has partnered with leading seismologists so that Android phones, using the ShakeAlert system,

in different countries and states could now automatically alert if an earthquake has happened. If one

now searches on Google to search ‘earthquake’, at least for participating areas, they will be able to see

if there is an earthquake detect in their area using aggregated (i.e., crowdsourced) accelerometers and

get information about the earthquake and any warning

Combining built-in sensors with smartphone data gives
the application relatively high accuracy and avoid false-
positive results for potential earthquakes.

Recent applications and even developments by Google

are making it possible for many of us to have our
smartphones act as important information nodes for
early detection of earthquakes. Having a few extra
seconds can make a large difference.

Fortunately, smartphone signals travel faster than

earthquakes, which means alerts can now be send
within seconds of an earthquake, giving many people
valuable time to prepare before a potentially disastrous
earthquake strikes