UNIT – 3

ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY
 Seismology

• Seismology (“seismos” – Earthquake, logos -

science) is the study of the generation,
propagation and recording of elastic waves in the
Earth and of the sources that produce them.
 What is an earthquake?
• Earthquake is a sudden shaking of the ground.It creates
waves just like waves of water moving across the
oceans, or waves of air moving across a field of wheat.

• Energy released radiates in all directions from its

source.

• Can be generated by bomb blasts, volcanic eruptions,

and sudden slippage along faults.

• Sensitive instruments will record the event.

 Causes of earthquake

Natural sources Manmade sources

Tectoinc Controlled Sources

Earthquakes (Explosives)
Volcanic Reservoir Induced
Earthquake Earthquakes
Rock Faults Mining Induced Earthwuakes
Movement of Tectonic Plates

Earth is divided into sections called Tectonic

plates that float on the fluid-like interior of the
Earth. Earthquakes are usually caused by
sudden movement of earth plates

Rupture of rocks along a fault

Faults are localized areas of weakness in the

surface of the Earth, sometimes the plate
boundary itself
Layers of Earth
• Crust - layer that you
live on, and it is the
most widely studied
and understood.
• Mantle - much hotter
and has the ability to
flow.
• Outer core and Inner
core - are even hotter
with pressures
 The Crust
• The Earth's Crust is like
the skin of an apple.
• It is very thin in
comparison to the other
three layers.
• The crust is only about 8 kilometers thick under the
oceans and about 32 kilometers thick under the
continents.
• The crust is composed of two rocks. The continental
crust is mostly granite. The oceanic crust is basalt. Basalt
is much denser than the granite.
The Mantle
• The Mantle is the largest
layer of the Earth at 2900
km thick.
• Upper Mantle reaching a
depth of about 400 km
made of olivine and
pyroxene
• Lower Mantle made of
more homogeneous mass
of magnesium, iron oxide
and quartz
 The Lithosphere
The crust and the upper layer of the mantle
together make up a zone of rigid, brittle rock
called the Lithosphere.
The Inner Core
• Inner core of radius
1370 km
• The inner core of the
Earth has temperatures
and pressures so great
that the metals are
squeezed together and
are not able to move
about like a liquid, but
are forced to vibrate in
place like a solid.
The Outer Core
• The core of the Earth is
like a ball of very hot
metals.
• The outer core is so hot
that the metals in it are
all in the liquid state.
• The outer core is
composed of the melted
metals of nickel and
iron.
 Convection Currents

The middle mantle "flows" because of convection currents.

Convection currents are caused by the very hot material at the
deepest part of the mantle rising, then cooling and sinking again --
repeating this cycle over and over.
 Plate Tectonics Theory
• The convective flows of Mantle material cause the Crust and
some portion of the Mantle, to slide on the hot molten
outer core.
• This sliding of Earth’s mass takes place in pieces called
Tectonic Plates.
• The surface of the Earth consists of seven major tectonic
plates and many smaller ones.
• These plates move in different directions and at different
speeds from those of the neighbouring ones.
• Sometimes, the plate in the
front is slower; then, the plate
behind it comes and collides.
• On the other hand, sometimes
two plates move away from
one another.
• In another case, two plates
move side-by-side, along the
same direction or in opposite
directions.
• These three types of inter-
plate interactions are the
convergent, divergent &
transform boundaries
respectively.
• Earthquake-recurrence interval: Average interval of time
between the occurrences of Earthquakes in a particular
region.
• Elastic rebound theory: Earthquake generation proposing
that faults remain locked while strain energy slowly
accumulates in the surrounding rock and then suddenly slip,
releasing this energy in the form of heat and seismic waves.
• Focus (hypocenter): Where the earthquake starts.
• Epicenter: the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the
focus (or hypocenter) of an Earthquake.
• Focal depth : Depth of the focus below the surface of Earth.
Magnitude (of Earthquake): a measure of Earthquake size
Microzonation: the division of a town or country into
smaller areas according to the variation in seismic hazard.
 SEISMIC WAVES
• Once a fault has actually ruptured, a great quantity of energy
is released in the form of vibrations within the earth's
interior. These vibrations are known as "seismic waves."

• These waves travel outward from the source of the

earthquake along the surface and through the Earth at
varying speeds depending on the material through which
they move.

• The speed of the waves depends on wave type and the

properties of the rock; the denser the rock, the faster the
waves travel.
Types of Seismic Waves

a. Body waves
b. Surface waves
a. Body waves

• Travel at different speeds through the earth.

• Propagate deep within the interior of earth or within
the body of rock.
• Surface waves are the fastest among the seismic waves.
• They are of two kinds, namely, Primary waves and
Secondary waves.
Primary (P) waves:
• Also known as push-pull waves, longitudinal waves,
compressional waves, etc.
• Travel most rapidly through the rock and they are the first to
arrive at any given point i.e., it will travel fastest as 5 to 7 km
per second.
• They consist of successive contractions and expansions, just
like sound waves in air.
• The motion of the particles in the rocks that the waves
travel through is parallel to the direction of the wave.
• P waves can travel through solids, liquids or gases.
Secondary (S) waves:
• Also known as shear waves, transverse waves, etc.
• It will travel fastest as 4 to 5 km per second. i.e., S-waves are
slower than P-waves.
• They are transverse waves, which means that the particle
motion is at right angles to the direction of travel.
• S-waves cannot travel through air or liquids.
• They shake the earth up and down and side to side
• In most rock types, P waves travel between 1.7 and 1.8 times
as fast as S waves.
b. Surface waves
• Surface waves travel through the earth crust and does not
propagate into the interior of earth.

• Surface waves are the slowest among the seismic

waves. Therefore, these are the last to be recorded in the
seismic station at the time of occurrence of the earthquake.

• They travel at the rate of 3 to 4.5 km per second.

• These waves are capable of travelling through solids and

liquids.

• They are complex in nature and are said to be of two kinds,

namely, Raleigh waves and Love waves.
 Rayleigh waves:

• They are tension and compression waves similar to the P waves

except that their amplitude diminishes with distance below the
surface of the ground.

• These waves are named after Lord Rayleigh; the English physicist
who predicted these waves existence.
 Love waves:

• Are the counterpart of the S (body) waves; they are shear waves
that diminish rapidly with distance below the surface.

• These waves are named after A.E.H. Love, the English

mathematician who discovered this type of waves.
EARTHQUAKE TYPES
• The most common type of earthquakes is the Tectonic
earthquakes. These are produced when rocks break suddenly in
response to various geological forces. 95% of worldwide seismic
energy release by plate tectonic and causes Tectonic earthquakes

• A volcanic earthquake is still defined as one that occurs in

conjunction with volcanic activity, but it is believed that while
eruptions and earthquakes both result from tectonic forces in the
rocks, they need not occur together.

• Collapse earthquakes are small earthquakes occurring in regions

of underground caverns and mines.
Types of earthquake based on depth
• Shallow focus Earthquake – Those with foci less than 70
kilometers deep are called shallow focus. Shallow earthquakes
wreak the most devastation, and they contribute more than three-
quarters of the total energy released in earthquakes throughout the
world.
• Intermediate focus Earthquake – Those with foci from 70 to
300 kilometers deep are arbitrarily called intermediate focus.
• Deep focus Earthquake - Those below the depth of 300
kilometers are termed deep focus. Many foci are situated
hundreds of kilometers deep, such regions include South American
Andes, the Tonga islands, Somoa, The New Hebrides chain, the
Japan Sea, Indonesia, and the Caribbean Antilles.
Types of earthquake based on location

• Earthquakes occurring along the edges of the interacting plates are

called interplate earthquakes. Ex: West coast of North America
(California and Alaska), the northeastern Mediterranean region
(Greece, Italy, and Turkey), Iran, New Zealand, Indonesia, Japan,
and China.

• Earthquakes occurring within the plate boundaries are called

intraplate earthquakes. Nonetheless, very large intraplate
earthquakes can inflict heavy damage. Ex: 1811-1812 earthquakes
in New Madrid, Missouri, and the 1886 earthquake in Charleston,
South Carolina, 2001 in Gujarat, India.
Types of earthquake based on size
• The size of an earthquake is obviously a very important
parameter
• More recently, modern seismographs have allowed the
development of a number of quantitative measures of
earthquake size.
Earthquake Magnitude Classification
Not felt Micro Earthquake
Small <5
Moderate 5 to 6.5
Large 6.5 to 8
 ELASTIC REBOUND THEORY
Henry Fielding Reid

• It is an explanation for how energy is spread during

earthquakes.

• As plates on opposite sides of a fault are subjected to

force and shift, they accumulate energy and slowly
deform until their internal strength is exceeded.

• At that time, a sudden movement occurs along the

fault, releasing the accumulated energy, and the rocks
snap back to their original undeformed shape.
Release of Accumulated energy
TYPES OF FAULT
Faults are fractures in Earth's crust where rocks on either side
of the crack have slid past each other. All faults are related to
the movement of Earth's tectonic plates. The biggest faults
mark the boundary between two plates.

Sometimes the cracks are tiny, as thin as hair, with barely

noticeable movement between the rock layers. But faults can
also be hundreds of miles long, such as the San Andreas
Fault in California and the Anatolian Fault in Turkey, both of
which are visible from space.
Strike-slip faults indicate rocks are sliding past each other
horizontally, with little to no vertical movement. Both the San
Andreas and Anatolian Faults are strike-slip.
Normal faults create space. Two blocks of crust pull apart,
stretching the crust into a valley. The Basin and Range Province in
North America and the East African Rift Zone are two well-known
regions where normal faults are spreading apart Earth's crust.
Reverse faults, also called thrust faults, slide one block of crust
on top of another. These faults are commonly found in collisions
zones, where tectonic plates push up mountain ranges such as the
Himalayas and the Rocky Mountains.
Strike-slip faults are usually vertical, while normal and reverse
faults are often at an angle to the surface of the Earth. The
different styles of faulting can also combine in a single event,
with one fault moving in both a vertical and strike-slip motion
during an earthquake.
SEISMOGRAPH
• Instruments measure the ground displacements -
seismographs. The record obtained from a seismograph is
called a seismogram.

• Three components – the sensor, the recorder and the timer.

• A magnet around the string provides required damping to

control the amplitude of oscillations.

• The pendulum mass, string, magnet and support - the sensor;

• the drum, pen and chart paper - the recorder; and

• the motor that rotates the drum at constant speed forms the
timer.
Modern Seismograph
(Horizontal)
Modern Seismograph (Vertical)
 SIZE OF EARTHQUAKES- Magnitude
• It is the amount of seismic energy released from the
earthquake.
• It mainly depends upon the epicentral distance and focal depth
which is measured in terms of Richter Magnitude Scale.
• It is increase by Magnitude 1 (M1) – 31 times higher than
energy release, i.e., M6.3 = 1 atom bomb put on 1945
Hiroshima (Japan).
• Based on the magnitude the earthquakes are grouped as from
great to very minor.
 SIZE OF EARTHQUAKES- Intensity
• It is the Quantitative measure of actual shaking of an
earthquake – i.e., measure of severity of the shaking of
ground and its attendant damage.

• The damage taken place to a structure - depends on many

factors such as (i) distance from the epicenter, (ii)
compactness of the underlying ground, (iii) type of
construction (iv) magnitude of the earthquake (v) duration of
the earthquake and (vi) depth of the focus.

• Intensity is the oldest measure of earthquake.

• MMI scale (Modified Mercali Intensity Scale).

 MMI Remarks
Intensity
I Not felt except by a very few under specially favourable
circumstances
II Felt only by a few persons at rest, specially on upper
floors of buildings; and delicately suspended objects
may swing.
III Felt quite noticeably indoors, specially on upper floors
of buildings but many people do not recognise it as an
earthquake; standing motor cars may rock slightly; and
vibrations may be felt like the passing of a truck.
 MMI Remarks
Intensity
IV During the day felt indoors by many, outdoors by a few,
at night some awakened; dishes, windows, doors
disturbed; walls make creaking sound, sensation like
heavy truck striking the building; and standing motor
cars rock noticeably.
V Felt by nearly everyone; many awakened; some dishes,
windows, etc, broken; a few instances of cracked
plaster; unstable objects overturned; disturbance of
trees, poles and other tall objects noticed sometimes;
 MMI Remarks
Intensity
VI Felt by all, many frightened and run outdoors; some
heavy furniture moved; a few instances of fallen plaster
or damaged chimneys; and damage slight.
VII Everybody runs outdoors, damage negligible in buildings
of good design and construction; slight to moderate in
well built ordinary structures; and some chimneys
broken, noticed by persons driving motor cars.
 MMI Remarks
Intensity

VIII Damage slight in specially designed structures;

considerable in ordinary but substantial buildings with
partial collapse; very heavy in poorly built structures;
panel walls thrown out of framed structures; falling of a
chimney, factory stacks, columns, monuments, and
walls; heavy furniture overturned, sand and mud eject
in small amounts; changes in well water; and disturbs
persons driving motor cars.
 MMI Remarks
Intensity
IX Damage considerable in specially designed structures;
well designed framed structures thrown out of plumb;
very heavy in substantial buildings with partial collapse;
building shifted off foundations; ground cracked
conspicuously; and underground pipes broken.
X Some well built wooden structures destroyed; most
masonry and framed structures with foundations
destroyed; ground badly cracked; rails bent; landslides
considerable from river banks and steep slopes; shifted
 MMI Remarks
Intensity
XI Few, if any, masonry structures remain standing; bridges
destroyed; broad fissures in ground, underground
pipelines completely out of service; earth slumps and
landslips in soft ground; and rails bent greatly.

XII Total damage; waves seen on ground surfaces; lines of

sight and levels distorted; and objects thrown upward
into the air.
Difference between intensity & magnitude
• The magnitude of an earthquake is determined
based on measuring the ground motion with
instruments (seismographs),

• The intensity of an earthquake is determined

based on observations of earthquake effects on
building structures and human perceptions.
Seismic Zoning Map on India:
• Seismic Zonation may be termed as the geographic delineation of
areas having different potentials for hazardous effects from future
earthquakes.

Need for Seismic Zonation

• These maps identify the regions of a country in which various

intensities of ground shaking may have occurred or may be
anticipated.

• Seismic zoning is used to reduce the human and economic losses

caused by earthquakes.
• Earthquake resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002].

• Earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones

(Zone 2, 3, 4 and 5).

• Zone - II: This is said to be the least active seismic zone.

• Zone - III: It is included in the moderate seismic zone.

• Zone - IV: This is considered to be the high seismic zone.

• Zone - V: It is the highest seismic zone.

Zone 5

• Zone 5 covers the areas with the highest risks zone that suffers
earthquakes of intensity MSK IX or greater. The IS code assigns
zone factor of 0.36 for Zone 5. It is referred to as the Very High
Damage Risk Zone. The state of Kashmir, the western and central
Himalayas, the North-East Indian region and the Rann of Kutch
fall in this zone.

• Generally, the areas having trap or basaltic rock are prone to

earthquakes.
Zone 4

• This zone is called the High Damage Risk Zone and covers areas
liable to MSK VIII. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.24 for
Zone 4. The Indo-Gangetic basin and the capital of the country
(Delhi), Jammu and Kashmir fall in Zone 4. In Maharashtra Patan
area (Koyananager) also in zone 4. but East Delhi is an earthquake
prone area.

Zone 3

• The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, parts of Kashmir, Western

Himalayas fall under this zone. This zone is classified as Moderate
Damage Risk Zone which is liable to MSK VII. The IS code
assigns zone factor of 0.16 for Zone 3.
Zone 2

• This region is liable to MSK VI or less and is classified as the Low

Damage Risk Zone. The IS code assigns zone factor of 0.10 for
Zone 2.

• Each zone indicates the effects of an earthquake at a particular

place based on the observations of the affected areas and can also
be described using a descriptive scale like Modified Mercalli
intensity scale.