LECTURE 1 –

INTRODUCTION
 Structural design
Structural design can be defined as a
mixture of art and science, combining the
engineer’s feeling for the behaviour of a
structure with a sound knowledge of the
principles of statics, dynamics, mechanics of
materials and structural analysis, to produce
a safe economical structure that will serve
its intended purpose (Salmon & Johnson
1990)
 Aim of Structural design

Design most efficient structures:

Initial cost + Life cycle cost
 Efficiency = Total earnings
Expenditure
 Aim for simpler structures that cheapest
in long term, even if they are not lightest
in weight
Aim of Structural design
 Role of the Designer
 The role changes as the design develops
different at each phase of the design
 In the early stages estimate mass, center of
gravity, cost and possibly reliability, while at the
same time ensuring satisfactory structural
continuity
 At further stage preliminaries are retained and
details are added
 Where necessary he must also specify margins
 To take account of the degree of uncertainty
 To allow for operational usage and growth
during life.
Evolution of Design
 Evolution of Design
 Factors to be considered in design
process:
Varied structural configuration.
Materials
Possible solutions for vulnerability and
structural Survivability
Design constraints: avoid stress
concentration and provide adequate load
paths
 Synthesis, Analysis &
Optimisation
Synthesis
 Development of system from components
 Compatibility b/w components, loads & in-service
functions
Analysis
 Proof that synthesized system will provide required
functions with acceptable reliability under service
loading
Optimization
 System as analyzed is most efficient and economic
(function-wise)
 Techniques of Optimisation

Minimization of costs depends on

ruggedness of struc, ability to undergo wear
and tear without unacceptable deterioration
Slightly heavy struct.+ more initial cost >>
Light struc + less initial cost: in terms of long
term benefits
Plus, heavy struct.: Easier to assemble+ less
rework => less labour cost
Overall optimization => compromise b/w
SIZE, Complexity, Initial + Maintenance cost
BASIC CONCEPTS
Material Properties
Stress
When a material is subjected to an external
force, it will set up internal forces to oppose those
applied from outside. A material subjected to
external forces that tend to stretch it is said to be
in tension, whereas forces which squeeze the
material put it in compression.

Strain
A material in tension or compression changes in
dimension, and the change in dimension
compared to the original dimension is referred to
as the ‘strain’
Proof Stress

Materials such as
aluminium alloys don’t
show a noticeable
yield point, and it is
usual to specify a
‘proof’ stress. As
shown in Fig, the 0.2%
proof strength is
obtained by drawing a
line parallel to the
straight line of the
graph, but starting at a
strain of 0.2%
 Ship as simple beam
Hull as flanged beam (as shown in fig) – bending
about neutral axis
Arrangement separates trans. and long. Structure
10% length
 Effective Structure
How well longitudinal bending of hull is
integrated into main structure
Superstructural block always takes some
bending load, but due to shear effects=> plane
sections do not remain plane
Rules of simple bending not strictly valid
Decks, longitudinal bulkheads, deep long
stiffeners effective as a part of hull girder if their
extension is greater than 10%
Torsion: Possible to estimate torsional effects
but warping in large deck opening: accuracy
doubtful
 Type of Structural Loading

Longitudinal Transverse
Loads Loads

Concentrated
Cyclic Loads
Loads

Combined Explosive
Loads Loads
 Longitudinal loading
BM & SF in Vertical + Horizontal planes
Torsional moments about longitudinal
axis
Most conventional ships, twin hulled
ships: BM and SFs in vertical place are
significant
Source of loading
 Lack of correspondence b/w weight and
buoyancy
 Rarely coherent for individual sections which
gives rise to resultant SF and BM distribution
Wave Action
Two groups of cyclic loads
When weight and buoyancy are out of
balance
Dominant wave frequency corresponds
to a natural frequency of hull girder
Worst case: encounter wave length=ship
length
Load estimation by simple beam
Hull vibration most frequently excited by
impulsive loading due to slamming of hull
onto water surface
 Transverse Loads
Hydrostatic and dynamic pressures
Elements of ships equipment and variable load
in vertical transverse plane
Loads: Static/ Static+Cyclic
For practical design purpose: consider all as
static, lack of knowledge of true loading
Except pressure variation induced by propellers
But dynamic effects need to be taken into
account when proposing load/strength margins
Influenced by environment: probabilistic
Necessary to use static methods for derivation of
design loads
 Cyclic Effects of Ship Life
Fatigue damage over a period of time
Necessary to define the expected life of a
structure subject to cyclic loading
Defined by number of wave encounters
7-8 seconds mean wave period
25 yr design, 30% likely at sea (8 sec w.p.)
3x107 wave encounters : used for recent tests in
warships
Lifetime definition of wave encounters: math
modeling => extrapolating from strain
measurements, load with a given probability of
exceedance in the specified no. of wave
encountered
 Concentrated
Explosive Loads
Loads
Imposed by heavy Due to explosions
items of equipment Extensive distortion of
Warships: operation of plating and stiffening:
weapon systems
large amplitudes and
Static + superimposed velocities
cyclic component from
inertial effects of motion Underwater attack:
Weapon loads are amplitudes of overall
impulsive eg. recoil of hull vibration may be
gun sufficient to break the
Effects of heavy loads back
like aircraft landing /
parking
 Classification of Structure
Primary:
 Hull as beam: shell, principal
decks, main transverse
bulkheads, superstructure
Secondary:
 Stiffened panels and grillages
bounded by decks, bulkheads,
shells
Tertiary:
 Panels of plates bounded by
stiffeners or elements of
stiffeners
 Simplification: breakdown
analysis of each component
independently of others
 Classification of Stresses
Primary: Due to bending,
shear, torsion in main hull
girder
Secondary: In stiffened
grillage due to bending
and membrane effects
Tertiary: Membrane
stresses in panels b/w
stiffeners
Useful to calculate
stresses at each level
separately, superimpose
for complete solution
 Load Transmission
Load from plate to longitudinal stiffeners
Load from longitudinal  transverse stiffeners
Then transferred to grillage boundary which is very
stiff in the plane of load
Extent to which a structure can be broken down
depends on relative stiffness of adjacent comp, most
reliable for large difference in stiffness
Corollary to this is there must always be a structure
to which load must be transferred
Structures to be avoided: unsupported decks,
bulkhead edges, unsupported stiffener edges
Lack of structural continuity  structural failure
 Effective Breadth
 Stiffeners deflect under loading; load
transferred into the plate by sear action
 Plate deflects out of plane progressively
less than stiffener
 Plane sections remain plane: strictly
invalid
 Effect called Shear lag=> in plane
stress distribution
 The whole plate doesn’t bend, only a
part of it participates: effective breadth
(be) with constant stress level-used to
calculate the bending stiffness of plate-
stiff combination
 be: function of panel aspect ratio and
thickness, load distribution, panel
flatness, residual stresses
 Remainder plate to have zero stresses
 Failure Modes
Loads TENSILE SHEAR COMPRESSIVE CYCLIC
Failure ↓
Yielding <---------------In-Plane Loading---------

Out of Plane Out of Plane

Bending Bending
Elastic/ Plastic <--------In-Plane Loading-------
Buckling Lateral Loads
(stiffener tripping)

Fatigue Loads mainly in

tensile range
(residual stresses,
corrosion fatigue)

Brittle Impact Explosion

(stress corrosion)
 Fatigue
Most loads are cyclic
Most failures occur as a result of fatigue
damage
But, fatigue effects do not dominate main
design process: governed by design detail
which is not usually considered until final
construction drawings
Stress concentration to be avoided or
minimized: detail specifications to be
mentioned
 Brittle Fracture
Dependent on material used
Risk increased by presence of stress
concentration, notches, exposure to low
temperature, impact of high rates of loading, use
of thick material, construction techniques, welding
procedures
Essential to select hull materials to resist brittle
failure, even in Arctic conditions
Steels with specified toughness must be used for
the hulls: cold conditions, high rates of loading
possible
Collision with ice=> produces brittle fracture under
certain conditions, steep temperature gradient
Plastic collapse under Lateral
Loading

Yielding occurs in sufficiently large volumes of

material where small inc. in lad cause large inc.
in deflections
Most imp. Loading: lateral+ in-plane loading
Lateral loading
 Formation of sufficient plastic hinges
 Not precipitated by yielding at a single point.
 Plastic collapse prediction only available for simple
structures
Plastic collapse under In-plane
loading
Average direct and shear stresses combined
reach an intensity which corresponds to yield

Need to prevent cracking at discontinuities and

stress concentrations

In efficiently designed structure: combination of

yielding and elastic buckling will occur before
pure yielding
 Elastic Bucking
Plating, webs, flanges, stiffeners
Occur by tripping or flexure of one set of
stiffeners b/w orthogonal set, entire grillage
All possible bucking modes should be taken into
account
Initial deformations + residual stresses=> loss of
buckling strength
Stiffener tripping and some modes of local
buckling can be used by lateral loads and in-
plane loads.
 Elasto-plastic buckling
Collapse involves a combination of buckling
and yield failure
Non-linear nature: numerical methods for
predicting dependence on initial def, welding
residual stresses, mode shape, stress at
failure
Traditional methods: tangent modulus
derived from part of estimated failure curve
b/w elastic and plastic failure
Uses in early synthesis stages for checks on
adequacy of scantlings
 Excessive Deflections
Linear elastic deflections
Residual stresses may cause greater than
expected deflections on the first application of
load
Places where no specific limits on
deformation: do not accept large deflections
as there can be unexpected interference with
performance of equipments
Specific deflection limits b/w weapons and
their associated sensors: particular
importance if FRP (lower stiffness) are used
 Vibration
Majority of loads: cyclic but low f =>static
Vibration (resonant f) response imp: weapons,
sensors, machinery, stern
More imp: if constructed using unconventional
materials or methods
Check if RF not too close to propeller shaft blade
rate f at full power, rotational f of auxiliary
machinery and natural f of shock and vibration
mountings
Predictive methods: estimates of full hull RF and
mode shapes when it is still possible to tailor the
hull response to match requirements of equip
sensitivities and layout