Chapter Five

Politics, Economy and Social

Processes from the Early 16th to the
End of the 18th Centuries

By Abdi A. (Asst. Prof.)

Nov. 2023
 Introduction
The period from the early 16th to the late 18th
centuries experienced dynamic political, economic,
and socio-cultural developments that lay the
foundation for the making of modern Ethiopia in the
19th and 20th centuries.
Among the major developments: expansion of trade,
conflicts between the Christian Kingdom and Muslim
Sultanates and foreign interventions; the population
movements of the Afar, the Somali, the Argoba and
the Oromo; religious expansions, interaction of
peoples and the resultant integration across ethnic
and religious diversities are those contributed to the
making of modern Ethiopia.
 Outlines
5.1. Conflict between the Christian Kingdom and
the Sultanate of Adal and its Aftermath
5.2. Foreign Intervention and Religious
Controversies
5.3. Population Movements
5.4. Interaction and Integration across Ethnic and
Religious Diversities
5.5. Peoples and States in Eastern, Central,
Southern and Western Regions
5.6. The Gondarine Period and Zemene Mesafint
 5.1. Conflict Between the Christian
Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal and
Aftermath
 Causes of the conflict:-
1. Competition and struggle for control over the
trade routes that go through Zeyla. (basic cause)
2. Mal-administration, corruption and exploitation
(internal problem amongst the Muslim
Sultanates; so new leadership needed. (interacting
cause)
3. Demographic pressure among the Afar and
Somali pastoralists pushing to approach Harar
and the Christian Kingdom. (interacting cause)
4. Religion provided ideological justification for
the wars. (was used as a binding entity)
 Cont’d…causes of the war
The Economic factor: (the major cause)
 The interest to control trade routes lay at the
heart of the conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim Sultanates that lasted
from 1529 to 1543.
Internal problems amongst the lowland
Muslims
 Among the Muslim Sultanates, internal fighting,
corruption and anarchy was intensified and a
new leadership was urgently called for.
 Such leadership came from Imam Ahmed Ibn
Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origins of Imam Ahmed,
surnamed “the left-handed,” are
 Cont’d…causes of the war

 He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa

and Jigjiga and raised by his devout Muslim kin
in one of the oases on the route to Zeila.
 He was a rigorous and ardent believer of Islam.
 He served as soldier for sultan Maifuz and
sultan Garad Abun of Adal, who during his few
years in power called for Islamic Puritanism.
 As a result, he had got the chance to marry a
woman called Bati Dil Wonbereua, the
daughter of Mahfuz.
 Ahmed’s original name is Ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi.
 Being a charismatic war leader, he also took
the title “Imam,” an Islamic title given to a
 Cont’d…causes of the war

 Demographic factor: for centuries, lowland inhabiting

Muslim pastoralists had wanted to expand to high plateaus
for better and enough pasturelands and their attempt was
held back by the Christian army.
 With increased population and overgrazing in Somali and Afar
of eastern Ethiopia, between the 13th and 16th centuries,
raiding and counter-raiding at water holes or animal rustling
intensified.
 It was one of the Imam’s remarkable achievements in
leadership skills that he mobilized the pastoral communities
of the Afar, the Somali, the Harla, Harari and others to a
common cause.
 He convinced them not to fight amongst themselves but to
unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom and resolve their
pressing material needs while at the same time keep Islamic
 Cont’d…causes of the war
 Religious Factor:
 Ahmed's ability to galvanize the force of the
lowland inhabiting Muslim pastoralists and
launching them towards the Highland
Christian kingdom seems to have been
assisted by religious personalities (using
Islamic faith as a binding entity)
 Courses of the War
 Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel (1515-1540) was enthroned
when he was only eleven; being assisted by his
mother Queen Elleni and due to internal conflicts in
Adal, the Christian state initially retained its interest
and even scoring significant victories into Muslim
territory in the early 16th century.
 They continued to proud of their early victories.
 His reign was very eventful:
 However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed’s army in
1520, and he refused to pay tribute and this was
followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom
in 1527.
 The war broke out in 1527, for the next 15 years the
Muslim armies were moving from one victory to
 Cont’d…Courses of the War
 The Imam’s army fought fiercely and controlled
the territories including Bali, Dawaro, Fatagar,
Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata and the Christian
Kingdom was at risk.
 In 1528, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force
and encamped about fifty kilometers east of
what is now Addis Ababa.
 There was the problem of logistics and the
leadership of the army of Christian Kingdom
failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat
Adal’s force.
 On the other hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s
army managed logistics problems with its small-
 Cont’d…courses of the war
 One of the most notable battlefield was fought
at Shimbra Kure in 1529 near present day Mojo;
where the larger and well-equipped Christian
army was defeated by Imam Ahmed forces.
 After the victory, the Imam’s army made a
large-scale control of the territories of the
Christian Kingdom including Shewa, Amhara,
Lasta, and moved as far north as Mereb Melash.
 In 1531 Imam’s army invaded and occupied
Dawaro Shawa, and Lasta,
 In 1535 he controlled Tigray and Eritrea and
along the Red Sea coast.
 Cont’d…courses of the war
 By 1535, he brought most parts of the country
under his control and his empire stretched from
Zeila to Massawa.
 By 1540 about 90% of the Christian kingdom was
brought under Ahmed’s forces.
 Imam Ahmed established a civil administrative
bureaucracy constituted from his own men and
newly recruited personnel from the Christian
territories.
 However, despite his success in crushing the
Christian army, Ahmad was not able to capture
Libne Dingel, who remained fugitive/escapee/ and
died in the 1540 in the monastery of Dabra Damo,
 Cont’d…courses of the war
International Dimensions of the War
 Conflict in the Ethiopian region began to take an
international dimension when two foreign powers
intervened for their advantage.
 These powers were Portugal and Ottoman Turkey.
 Since the twelfth century, Europeans had found the
long-distance trade route from Europe to the Far East
blocked by the Ottoman Turks.
 The Ottoman Turkish Empire was already in control of
Arabia and Egypt.
 It also occupied areas in parts of the Red Sea coast
and along the eastern coast of the Indian Ocean.
 Ottoman Turkey had an established power in the Red
Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean regions.
 Cont’d…courses of the war
 After Vasco da Gama discovered a direct sea route
to India for Europe in 1498, the Portuguese began to
establish trading stations along the eastern coasts
of Africa.
 They were also interested in getting new ones on
the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea coasts.
 Having noticed the movement of diplomatic
missions between the Christian Kingdoms and
Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military support
to Imam Ahmed.
 Imam Ahmed had received 200 Turkish musketeers
and ten cannons in 1540.
 In the meantime, based on the earlier request made
by Lebne-Dengel in 1535, about 400 Portuguese
soldiers led by Christopher Da Gama armed with
 Cont’d…courses of the war
 However, in August 1542 at the Battle of Ofla
the forces of Ahmed defeated the Portuguese and
the Christian forces where almost half of
Portuguese were killed and even their leader
Christopher da Gama was beheaded.
 After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident
about his army’s, he sent his allies back home and
let his army camp.
 In Oct,1542 the remaining Portuguese solders
joined Galawdewos forces.
 Cont’d…courses of the war
 On the Christians side, preparations were made
for final confrontation under Emperor
Gelawdewos, as Seble-Wongel advised him how
to prepare and march for the Battle of Woyna-
Dega.
 Due to limited resources, the monarch employed
hit and run strategy, which severely affected
Imam’s army.
 Imam Ahmed’s army could not use its previous
quality of easy mobility because they did not
know where the attacks came from.
 Cont’d…courses of the war
 On the Christian side important anecdote
(narration) that should be mentioned here is the
role of Lebne-Dengel's wife Seblewongel.
 She is said to have participated in the war
against Imam Ahmed in 1542.
 on the other side, most illuminating figures
during the war was the wife of the Imam, Bati
Del Wanbara, the daughter of sultan Mahfuz of
Adal, who had encouraged her husband to
avenge the death of her father.
 She accompanied her husband throughout his
expeditions and she is said to have marched
even in a state of pregnancy during which she
was unable to use mules.
 Cont’d…courses of the war
Why did Imam Ahmed succeed to achieve rapid
victory?
 Ahmed’s quality of leadership: The Imam’s

army had also an excellent leadership

characterized by better mobility and flexible
tactics with a unified command.
 Better army: The Turks provided the forces of

Imam Ahmed with better weapons such as

muskets and cannon, and Libne Dengel forces
with swords and spears unable t stand against
them. (possible factors)
 Internal problem with in the highland kingdom,

Weakness of the king Libne Dengel

 Cont’d…courses of the war
 On February 25, 1543 while Imam Ahmed was
encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and
killed after a fierce fighting at the battle of
Woyna-Dega.
 Soon after the battle, the remaining Ahmed’s
soldiers fled to Harar.
 Gelawdewos soon restored possession of almost
all the northern and central plateau.
 Muslim communities in the highlands submitted
to Gelawdewos and he was tolerant toward
them to promote national conciliation and to
develop revival of smooth relations with the
Muslim world.
 Cont’d…courses of the war
 Gelawdewos was able to restore many of pre-
1520s territories and tributary regions.
 By the early 1550s, Gelawdewos had
established a strong Christian Kingdom.
However, the control over the Muslim
dominated areas was not an easy task.
 In the period, the growing challenge to the
Christian state came from:
 -the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal,
as they reorganized themselves under emir
Nur
 - the Ottoman Turks,
 - Jesuit interlude, and
 Cont’d…courses of the war
 Adal under the leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir
Mujahid was ready to wage war against the
Christian state for revenge.
 In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted
Gelawdewos and killed the king himself. (At Good
Friday)
 Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563) who succeeded
Gelawdewos defeated the Turks' force and
reclaimed territories in the coast including
Dabarwa.
 However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and
allied with the Turks against him.
 Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to
defend the Turks while fighting with the Agaw,
Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Enarya and the
 Consequences of the war
 The Muslim-Christian conflict had resulted in a
number of consequences.
I. The huge destructions of human and material
resources. Ahmed Gragn also burnt so many
historical churches and monasteries with their
invaluable heritage possessions
II. The weakening of both the Muslim Sultanate and
Christian Kingdom, thereby paving the way for an
easy infiltration and success of the Oromo
population movement.
III. The destruction of the royal prison of Amba
Gishen left many contending princes free and this
resulted into a dynastic conflict and political
instability in the Christian kingdom. (from1559-1607)
 Cont’d…Consequences of …
IV. The war also led the shift of political centre of the
Christian kingdom from central Shawa to the
north, towards the Lake Tana area.
V. The religious controversies in the EOC (Ethiopian
Orthodox Church), caused by the Jesuit
missionaries who came from Portugal following
Portuguese army and the Ottoman Turkish threat
along the Red Sea coasts after Ahmad’s war were
some of long term consequences of the war.
VI. The forceful conversion of peoples into Islam.
However, the war had also a disastrous impact on
Muslims.
 The Muslim states were left impoverished and the
ground cleared the way for their occupations by
the Oromos.
 Cont’d…Consequences of …

VII. The country was stricken by poverty and its

whole progress was disturbed.
 The population decreased

 Agriculture and even commercial activities

disrupted due to lack of security for movement

VIII. The conquest weakened the loyalty of the
population to the monarch
IX. The construction of a wall round the Harar
town in 1551/52 hoping to save the town from
the Oromo Expansion.
 Cont’d…Consequences of …

X. On the positive side, it should be restated

that the war had arguably resulted in cultural
(Linguistic and religious) interaction among
the peoples of Ethiopia, which was
accompanied by intermarriages among
peoples of the various cultural groups.
 Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea
and the Indian Ocean between Portugal and
the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict
between the Christian Kingdom and the
Muslim principalities a global dimension.
 Cont’d…
 Middle Eastern powers including the dominant
Ottoman Empire who were the intermediaries of the
international trade were adversely affected by the
discovery of a new sea route to India by Vasco da
Gama in 1498.
 They tried to counter the Portuguese encroachment
into the East, while Portugal for its part began to look
toward the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia as an ally,
reviving the old "semi-spiritual quest" for Prester John.
 From the first decade of the 16th century, messengers
were sent.
 However, actual military alliance did not take place
because Ethiopia was not a sea power to give a
meaningful maritime support to Portugal against the
Ottoman Turks.
 Cont’d…
 On its part, the Christian Kingdom asked
Portugal’s military assistance against its
Muslim rival.
 Having noticed the movement of diplomatic
missions between the Christian Kingdom and
Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military
support to Imam Ahmed.
 In 1540, the Imam turned to his Muslim ally,
Turkey, for assistance and regional Ottoman
authorities provided two hundred Muslim
musketeers and ten cannons.
 5.2. Foreign Intervention and
Religious Controversies
 The coming of Portuguese diplomatic mission in 1520
and Portuguese army in 1541 could serve as a
springboard for arrival of Catholic missionaries (the
Jesuits Missionaries).
 In 1557, several Jesuit missionaries along with their
bishop, Andreas de Oviedo, came to Ethiopia to
expand Catholicism, (i.e. to convert the king and his
subjects to Catholicism).
 The Jesuits promoted Catholic doctrine of two different
and separate, natures of Christ-divine and human,
which was contrary to Monophysite theology of EOC.
 EOC taught that Christ, through union or Tewahedo
had a perfect human nature inseparable from divinity.
 Who were the Jesuits?
 Jesuits (society of Jesus): religious order of men in the
RCC founded by the st. Ignatius of Loyola in Spain in
1534. with the objective of getting back of the ‘lost
sheep’ or defending Catholicism against the Reformation
of 1517.
 Counter-reformation: mov’t within the RCC to revitalize
the church and to holdback the expansion of
Protestantism.
 The spirituality of the counterreformation was mainly
directed towards the evangelization of the newly
explored territories in the Far East, North and South
America, and Africa where the Jesuits took the lead.
 During this period, Ethiopia had become the main target
of the Jesuits process of evangelization and conversion of
 Cont’d… Religious Controversies …
 The leading members of the Jesuits mission who
played key role in efforts to evangelize the country
include Bermudez, Oviedo, Paez and Mendez.
 The Jesuits began their evangelical effort with
Emperor Gelawdewos hoping that the rest of the
society would follow his track
 Although Gelawdewos listened and engaged in
doctrinal debates with the missionaries, he was not
prepared to give in. Instead, he defended the
teachings of Orthodox Christianity in a document
entitled the Confession of Faith.
 The Jesuits, however, got relative success with
Emperor Za-Dengel (r.1603-4) who secretly
converted to Catholicism.
 (although his reign was too short for the Jesuits to effect the desired
 Cont’d… Religious Controversies …
 Susenyos (r. 1607-32) was challenged by
provincial leaders who refused to pay tribute,
integrated the Oromo with the forces of central
government to consolidate his power and then
stabilize the country.
 Probably as a means to this, Susenyos sought
for an alliance, which he got through the
diplomatic advisory of Pedro Paez.
 In 1612, Susenyos converted to Catholicism
and declared it to be state religion later in
1622. In the meantime, in 1617-8 several anti-
Catholic voices mounted following the changes
in liturgy and religious practices.
 Cont’d… Religious Controversies …
 With the monarch’s consent, another Spanish
Jesuit, Alfonso Mendez ordered:-
 re-consecration of Orthodox priests and deacons,
and rebaptism of the mass
 the suspension of Jewish (Old Testament customs)
such as male circumcision and the observance of
the Sabbath.
 prohibition of preaching in Ge’ez, fasting on
Wednesdays and Fridays, reverence for Ethiopian
saints and the Ark of Covenant (Tabot).
 Meanwhile, he ordered eating pork, Latin Mass (the
principal liturgical service in the RCC) and
Gregorian calendar to be adopted.
 Cont’d… Religious Controversies …
 This compulsory conversion to Catholicism resulted
in popular revolt which quickly developed into civil
war (1622-32).
 Susenyos succeeded in suppressing the rebellion
one after another but the kingdom came to the
verge of falling apart.
 Finally, the emperor abdicated the throne in favor
of his son Fasiledas in June 1632.
 On the abdication ceremony the emperor issued
the a proclamation of restoring the traditional
religion, which ended the revolt.
 The coronation of Fasiledas as an emperor in 1632
brought a new era in the history of Ethiopia i.e the
 The Reign of Fasiledas
 The reign of Fasileas noted for many important
developments; among the notables were:
i. Restoration of the Orthodox faith as state religion
ii. The expulsion of the Jesuits Missionaries from
Ethiopia and the change in foreign relations from
Christian European to Islamic world. (in doing so
he applied the “Closed-door-policy”), which
marked Ethiopia’s complete Isolation from the
Christian Europe for at least century and half.
 Fassilades obliged the Jesuits to leave their home
 Punished local converts including Susenyos’ uncle, Se'ela
Kristos.
 He blocked all Europeans from entering into his territory
 He negotiated with Imam of Yemen and Pasha of Swakin and
Massawa
 By doing so,he was able to restore peace and order.
 Cont’d… Fassilades….
 Ethiopia’s diplomatic break from Europe remained
effective until the beginning of the nineteenth
century with the exception of secret visits by a
French Doctor Charles Jacques Poncet and the
Scottish traveler James Bruce in 1700 and 1769,
respectively.
iii. The establishment of Gondar as a permanent
capital
 It was a deviation(departure) from traditional
ways of administration i.e Mobile court; and
Ethiopia got new permanent capital after about
4oo yrs, the 3rd permanent capital next to Axum
and Lalibela.
iv. The restoration of the traditional detention of
male members of the royal families at Amba
 Cont’d…
 Yet, the Jesuit intervention triggered doctrinal divisions and
controversy within the Ethiopian Orthodox Church that was
divided into disputant sects and reached its peak during the
Zemene Mesafint.
 Tewahedo teaches Hulet Lidet (two births) of Christ: first in
eternity as a Divine Being the eternal birth and second, born
again from St. Mary into the world as a perfect man and
perfect divinity united in one nature, thus Tewahedo
(United). It was dominant in Tigray and Lasta.
 Qibat (Unction) was also developed from Hulet Lidet doctrine
and accepted the eternal birth as the first birth of Christ, but
claimed that at the moment of his incarnation, when he was
born into the world, Holy Ghost anointed him. This sect was
dominant in Gojjam.
 Sost Lidet/Three Births (Ya Tsega Lij/Son through Grace)
taught that Christ was first born in eternity as divine being,
was born again in the womb of St. Mary and anointed by
Holy Ghost. This sect was dominant in Gonder and Shawa.
 5.3. POPULATION MOVEMENTS
 The movements of people from one place to another have
played important roles in shaping the history of Ethiopia and
the Horn.
 In the Ethiopia and the Horn, the population movements
occurred due to various reasons which attributed to the
region's long socio-political conditions involving:
 military conflicts,
 drought and
 demographic factors.
 Population movements had extensive effects : i.e the
integration of peoples across ethnic and religious
lines.
 Major outcomes of population movements during the period
study includes
 Religious, ethnic and linguistic interactions and
 Intermingling of peoples through intermarriage,
 change of abode (residence) and original culture
 5.3.1. Population Movements Of the
Argoba, Afar, Somali and the Oromo

 Causes: man-made and natural factors

 The military conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal in the late
15th and the early 16th centuries was partly
responsible for the population movement of
the Argoba, Afar and Somali.
 The demographic pressure on environment
gave background for the population
movement which was probably triggered off
by:-population growth and shortage of grazing
lands.
 A) The Argoba:
 The Argoba were major agents of:
 Islamic expansion,
 trade and
 Muslim state formation in the Horn.
 Towards the end of the 13th century, with the
decline of the sultanate of Shewa, the sultanate of
Ifat, in which the Argoba were dominant, became
the center of Muslim resistance. Because, on the
eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed, the Argoba joined
the Afar and the Somali against the Christian
Kingdom.
 The area inhabited by the Argoba was:
a target of the expanding Christian Kingdom
the major center of conflict.
 This was because the major caravan trade routes
B) The Afar:
 before the 16th century, due to drought, the Afar
moved towards the east until they reached the
middle Awash.
 Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed
through the Afar's territory.
 As a result, the region was the centre of competition
between the Christian Kingdom and the Muslim
sultanates to control the trade routes.
 Besides being actors in the conflict, the conflict
inevitably pressurized the Afar to move into different
directions to avoid the risk of the conflicts.
 In the 16th century, their pastoral economy helped
them to survive the destructive effects of the wars.
C) The Somali:
 their territory laid in the medieval competition

for the control of trade routes.

 The population movement of the Somali was a

strong force behind the military strength of

the Imam.
 However, the population movement of the

Somali did not last for long as they returned to

their home base following the defeat of Imam
Ahmed in 1543.
 D) The Oromo
Who are the Oromo?
 The Oromo are a large Cushitic speaking group
of people that have existed in Ethiopia for
several millennia, speak Afaan Oromoo, which
is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-
Asiatic family.
 They were a very ancient race, the indigenous
stock, perhaps, on which most other peoples
in this part of eastern Africa have been
grafted.
 Available information clearly indicates that the
Oromo existed as a community of people for
thousands of years in Ethiopia.
 II) The Gadaa System and the Oromo
Population Movement (1522-1618)

A. The Gadaa System

 The Oromo population movement of the 16 th

and 17th Cs cannot be better understood

without considering the Gadaa system.
 Hence, the Gadaa system was an institution

through which the Oromo:

 socially organized themselves,
 administered their affairs,
 defended their territories,
 maintained law and order, and
 managed their economies.
 Cont’d…
 Studies do not clearly indicate when and how
the Gadaa system emerged.
 However, it is clear that for long the society
organized their
politics,
economy,
social,
cultural, and
religious affairs through the Gadaa
institution.
 The Oromo had practiced the Gadaa system
long before the 16th C historic movement.
 What is Gadaa System?
 The Gada System:
 an indigenous egalitarian democratic system
 the society was structured based on age and sex.
 Ten age- grades and five classes operated in
parallel.
 Political positions were generally based on ability
and achievement .
 Leadership was elective
 No more might serve for more than eight years
 Male members divided into generation sets and
Gada grade
 The Gadaa system functioned by the cyclical
power transfer from one Gadaa class to the next
every eight years.
 Cont’d…
 Age-grades and their roles
Gade Grade Age Roles

Dabale Birth-8
years Socialization
Game 9-16 years

Folle 17- 24 Military training, agriculture,

years etc.
Qondala 25-32 Military service
years
Raba-Dori 33-40 Candidates for political power
years
Luba 41-48 Leaders of Gadaa government
years
Yuba 49-80 Senior advisors, educators
years and ritual leaders
 Cont’d…
 The full Gadaa grade consisted of ten grades
(80 yrs).
 The first five Gadaa grades (40yrs)- Gadaa
the father
 The second five Gadaa grade (40 yrs)- Gadaa
the son
 Sons joined the first grade as members of
Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty
years after their fathers.
 Generally, it is a system where age-sets
succeed each other every eight years in
carrying out political and military functions.
 Cont’d…
 With some minor differences in nomenclature
in different parts of Oromo territories, the five
Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed
below:
The Five Gadaa Classes

Fathers Sons
Melba Harmufa
Mudana Robale
Kilole Birmaji
Bifole Mul’ata
Michille Dulo
 Officials in Gadaa System
 In the Gadaa system there are titles given to
individuals who were elected by the people to serve
the society.
 The gadaa/luba assumed power for eight years.
 The head of the government was known as Abba-
Gadaa and assisted by several representatives from
among the generation set.
 These included
 Abba Bokku (father of scepter),
 Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly),
 Abba-Dula (war leader),
 Abba Sera (father of law),
 Abba Alanga (judge),
 Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other councillors.
 Cont’d…
 Recent studies based on the Gadaa calendar and
Gadaa centers suggest that the system evolved from
the earlier Cushitic age-set social organization.
 Time computation and recording history was based
on the eight-year segment of time.
 In the system, eight years represented one Gadaa
period, 5-gadaa periods or 40 years represented one
generation and 9-generations represented an era.
 Gadaa was interrupted and revitalized during various
eras because of various internal and external factors.
 For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was
instituted after interruption for nearly two
generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu
that became the central Chaffe (assembly) and seat
 Cont’d…
 Generally speaking, the Gadaa system constituted
elements of democracy such as: -
 periodic succession and power sharing to prevent a
one-man rule.
 representation of all lineages, clans and
confederacies.
 served as a mechanism of socialization, education,
maintenance of peace and order, and social cohesion.
 constituted rules of arara (conflict resolution), guma
(compensation) and rakoo (marriage).
 organized the Oromo society into age-grades and
generation sets delineating members' social, political,
and economic responsibilities. Ten age- grades and
five classes operated in parallel.
 provided a socio-political framework that
institutionalized relationship b/n seniors and juniors
 The Oromo Religion and Religious
Institution
 Initially the Oromo were neither Muslims nor
Christians, but they had their own religion
(waaqeffannaa) and religious institution known as
the Qallu system.
 They believe in a supreme being whom they called
Waaqa.
 They believe that Waaqa is Uumaa(creator) of all
things.
 They pray to Waaqa at the sites believed to be
blessed, under certain tree species, odaa tree.
 In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba
Muda) played indispensable roles in power transfer
and legitimizing the ruling gadaa class.
 The Sinqe Institution
 Women maintained their rights by the Sinqe
Institution, which helped them to form sisterhood
and solidarity.
 Women from childhood to old age i.e. guduru (pre-
pubescent or immature), qarre (adolescent, ready
for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and
cifire (wives of Gadamojji/above 80 years) were
believed to have sacred power.
 They involved in occasions like
power transfer,
conflict resolution,
thanks-giving and others.
 The kalale were also privileged to support and advise
the ruling class.
 What happened to their
religion at the end of the
day?
 After the historic expansion, those who came
to live close to the Muslim people of eastern
and southeastern of Ethiopia adopted the
Islamic religion.
 Those who were in contact with the Highland
Christian became Christians, in both cases
however the Oromo kept many of their ancient
traditions.
 B. The Oromo Population
Movement (1522-1618)
Causes:
 A combination of natural or environmental and
manmade factors caused the Oromo population
movement of the 16th and 17th centuries.
 Natural factors:
 demographic pressure and subsequent need for
land to accommodate the growing human and
livestock population.
 Environmental factors:
 Sporadic or intermittent droughts, i.e. the semi
desert nature of their original inhabitant place
which could no longer support their growing
numbers and their herds.
 Cont’d…
 Man-made factor:
 The conflict between the Christian Kingdom
and Muslim Sultanates from the 13th to the
16th centuries might have resulted in the
exhaustion of both states; this in turn paved
the way for the Oromos to move easily
without effective resistance
 Courses of the Movement
 During the historic mov’t the Oromo had
organized themselves into two
confederacies: the Borana and the Barentu.
 The Borana divided into:
The North Borana (Macha and Tulama)
The Guji
The South Borana
 The Barentu divided into:
Wallo
Marawa
Ittu
Karrayyu
 Cont’d…
 The Barentu group:
 Moved northward and branched to Arsi, Harar, Wallo,
Gojjam and south Tigray.
 Devastated the Muslim trading state of Bali
 They turned against the Muslim state of Harar
 This resulted in the construction of the wall of Harar in
1551/52,
 They occupied Harar ( the walled city) where Emir Nur
of Harar unable to withstand them, as a result, the
Adalite were forced to shift their political center to
Awusa. Hence, Dakar HararAwusa
 Cont’d…
 The Borana group: (notably the Macha and
Tulama)
 Moved to westward as far as Gibe River, (Jimma)
Wallaga, Illubabor, South Shawa
 In the area b/n Gojeb and Abay rivers five Oromo
Monarchial states arose: Gomma, Gumma,
Limmu, Jimma, and Gera (the five Gbe states)
 The two Leqa states (Leqa Naqmteand Leqa
Qellem) in the present day Wallaga area
 Cont’d…
 The Oromo forces took northern direction and
passed through a corridor between Mount Walabu
and Lake Abbaya.
 When they reached half way between Lakes
Abbaya and Hawassa then westward and across
the Bilatte River to the southwest.
 From 1522 to 1618, the Oromo fought twelve
Butta wars.
1. The first Gadaa i.e Melba Gadaa (1522-30)
fought and defeated Christian regiment Batra
Amora led by Fasil and occupied Bali.
2. the Mudena Gadaa (1530-38) reached the edge
of Awash River.
 Cont’d…
3. The Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro
after defeating Christian regiment Adal Mabraq.
4. The Gadaa Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and
Erer.
5. The Michille Gadaa (1554-62) scored victory over
Hamalmal's force at Dago, and Jan Amora; on
Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo.
6. The Harmufa Gadaa (1562-70) fought Minas
(r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied
Angot, Ganzyi, Sayint etc.
7. The Robale gadaa (1570-78): was first defeated
by Sartsa Dingil’s (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj
Halibo in 1574, at Woyna Daga, but later on
Robale recovered by defeating Zara’a Yohannis’
 Cont’d…
8. The Birmaji Gadaa (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine
in Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and
overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment.
9. The Mul’ata Gadaa (1586-94) seized Damot,
Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray.
 In the early 17th century: (from 1594-1618)

10. The Dulo Gadaa (1594-1602),

11. the Melba Gadaa (1603-10), and
12. the Mudena Gadaa (1610-18) expanded to West
and Northern parts of the Horn of Africa.
 Others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur

Haqaba and Majertin in Somalia.

 Why the Oromos so successful?
1. In the first place, the Gadaa system provided
training and military organization, which
contributed much to the movement's success.
2. The Oromos mechanisms for the adoption of
subdued peoples.
 Adoption had both collective and individual forms.
 The adoption of an individual by a clan was
known as “Mogassa” while adoption of a child by
foster parent was known as “Guddifacha”.
 This system of adoption and assimilation of
conquered peoples assisted the expansion
process by enlarging the material and human
resources of the Oromo, and reducing the
possible challenges they mightfaced.
 Cont’d…
3) The political vacuum that was created by the
weakness of the Christian kingdom and the
Muslim Sultanates blse of
i. wars Imam Ahmed
ii. Dynastic wars (1559-1607)
iii. Religious conflicts b/n the Catholicism and the
orthodox
4) The Oromo were fierce fighters (good warriors)i.e
i. all Oromo male during their youth were
trained to fight courageously
ii. they were instructed in warfare from an early
age.
iii. Aba-Dula was their war leader
 Cont’d
 In the course of their movement into various regions,
different Oromo branches established Gadaa centres.
 The Five major Gadaa centres
Gadaa Centers Respective Oromo
clans
Oda Nabee Tulama
Oda Roba Sikko-Mando (Arsi)
Oda Bultum Itu-Humabenna
Oda Bisil Mecha
Oda Bulluq Jawwi Mecha
 Other places, which became Gadaa centers, were Gayo of
Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu, Oda Hulle
of Jimma, Oda Garado of Walloo, etc.
 Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of Borana, Anna Sorra
of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and
others established Gadaa centers and laid down cardinal
laws in their respective areas.
 Cont’d
 However, various Oromo groups kept their relations
through the office of Abba Muda (the father of
anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed
alliances during times of difficulty.
 Besides, they obeyed similar aadaa (culture) and seera
(law) through sending their delegates to Madda-
Walabu, the central chaffe until the pan-Oromo
assembly was forbidden in 1900 due to the political
influence of the Ethiopian state.
 In due course, Gadaa devised effective resource
allocation formula including land. Land holding system
to regulate resource and their interaction among
different clans is known as the qabiyye system.
 The system established rights of precedence
(seniority) in possession of land. Accordingly, place
names were given the names of the pioneer as a
 5.4. Interaction and Integration across
Ethnic and Religious Diversities
 The political, social, and economic processes of
the medieval period were the major factors for
the people's interactions across regions.
 Such interactions occurred during peace and
conflict times. The cases in point were the trade
contacts and conflicts to control trade routes,
religious expansion, and territorial expansion and
population movements.
 One of the major consequences of the
interactions in the medieval period particularly in
the population movement of the 16th century was
the integration of peoples across ethnic and
religious diversities in Ethiopia and the Horn.
 Cont’d…
 It is apparent that territorial and religious expansion by
the Christian kingdom diffused Christian tradition from
north to the south.
 Similarly, the wars of Imam Ahmed and the population
movements of the Argoba, the Afar and the Somali
caused the expansion of Islam into the central parts of
Ethiopia.
 One consequence of the Oromo population movement
was that it put an end to the wars between the Christian
and Muslim states as well as the southward expansion
of the Christian state.
 At larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples
in the 16th century brought far-reaching integrations
 Cont’d…
 The Oromo integrated non-Oromo through two adoption
mechanisms: Guddifacha and Moggasa.
 Guddifacha refers to the adoption of a child by a foster
parent. In this system, the child enjoyed equal rights and
privileges with a biological child.
 Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos
commonly known as Oromsu.
 Moggasa was the practice of incorporation of individuals
or groups to a clan through oath of allegiance with all the
rights and obligations that such membership entailed.
 Moggasa was undertaken by the Abba Gadaa on behalf
of the clan.
 The adopted groups gained both protection and material
benefits.
 Thus, it lead complete assimilation and disappearance of
Bizamo, and Damot as well as mutual assimilation with
 Cont’d…
 The process significantly contributed to the social
cohesions, national integration, and the revival of long-
distance trade.
 The interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-
cultural values and institutions.
 A number of peoples in the neighborhood of the Oromo
adopted Gadaa system and Oromo language. E.g.
E.g. E.g Sidama and Gedeo adopted the Gadaa
system.
 The Oromo adopted and adapted cultures and
traditions of the people with whom they came into
contact. E.g. the adoption of monarchical systems
and the integration of the Oromo to the Christian and
Muslim states.
 It is important to mention the rise of nobles in the
northern Oromo in politics particularly during the
 5.6. THE GONDARINE PERIOD AND ZEMENE-MESAFINT
1. THE GONDARINE PERIOD
A. Political Developments
 The period of Gondar begins from the reign of Emperor
Sartsa-Dengle when the political center of Ethiopian
emperors shifted to Gondar area.
 Emperor Sartsa-Dengle established royal camp at Enfranz in
1571.
 Emperor Susenyos also tried to establish his capital near
Gondar like at Qoga, Gorgora, Danqaz and Azazo.
 Gondar was founded in 1636 by Fasiledas as his political
seat.
 Gondar achieved its glory during the reigns of its first three
successive emperors: Fasiledas (r.1632–67), Yohannes I (r.1667-
82) and Iyasu I (r.1682- 1706).
 Among the major reforms during these periods were:
- the restoration of Orthodox Church as state religion, and
-the establishment of a royal prison at Amba Wahni to solve
problems stemming from power rivalry.
 Cont’d…
 Emperor Yohannes I and his council established a
separate quarter for Muslims at Addis Alem.
 His successor, Iyasu I, reformed land tenure system,
introduced a system of land measurement in
Begemder, taxes, and customs, and revised the Fetha
Negest (the civil code).
 The assassination of Iyasu the Great by a faction under
the leadership of his own son, Tekle-Haymanot, ushered
in political instability in Gondar involving intrigues and
poisoning of reigning monarchs.
 Tekle-Haymanot was crowned in 1706 before the death
of his father and was in turn assassinated by Tewoflos.
Tewoflos was again killed by Yostos, who was also
poisoned and replaced by Dawit III, who himself was
poisoned and replaced by Bakafa.
 Cont’d…

 Bakafa tried to restore stability with the support of his

followers and his wife Etege Mentewab until he was
incapacitated in 1728.
 The Gondarine Period also witnessed increased
involvement of the Oromo in politics and the army.
 From 1728 to 1768, Etege Mentewab together with her
brother Ras-Bitwaded Walda Le’ul (1732-1767) dominated
the Gondarine court politics.
 Walda Le’ul was influential during the reigns of Iyasu II
(1730-55) and Iyoas (1755-69). Following his death in
1767, Etege Mentewab was challenged by Wubit Amito,
her daughter-in-law from Wollo.
 To counter the growing power of the Wollo Oromo in the
royal court, Mentewab sought the alliance of Ras Mika'el
Sehul of Tigray who was politically astute and military
powerful.
 Cont’d…
 Mika'el Sehul succeeded in stabilizing the situation
and refused to return to Tigray although demanded
by Iyoas. This was followed by the killing of Iyoas
and his replacement by an old man Yohannes II by
Ras Mika'el. Soon Ras Mika'el killed Yohannes II and
put his son Takla-Haymanot II (1769-77) on power.
This marked the onset of the period of Zemene-
Mesafint (1769-1855).
B. Achievements of the Gondarine Period
 Gondar became the center of state administration,
learning, commerce, education, art, and crafts for
more than two centuries.
 The first three kings were successful not only in
political affairs but also in cultural developments.
This enabled Gondar to repeat the splendors of
Aksum and Lalibela.
 Cont’d…

 The cultural achievements of the period led

some writers to describe Gondarine period in
history as Ethiopian Renaissance.
 Architecture: when Gondar served as a
permanent capital, for about one hundred fifty
years, Ethiopian kings built significant secular
buildings like castles, bridges, residences,
bath, library, towers, fortifications and there
are squared, round and unknown shape of
churches.
 In the cities compound the most impressive
building known as Fasil Gemb, there are
different palaces corresponding to Emperor
Fasiledas, Yohannes I, Iyasu I, Dawit III, Bakafa
 Cont’d…
 The Gondarine architecture would have started
before the reign of emperor Fasiledas during the
reign of Emperor Sartsa-Dengle at about 1586, at
Guzara near Enfranz, and built a very fine bridge
near his palace at Guzara, and Emperor Susenyos
likewise erected a bridge over Blue Nile at Alata.
 Even it goes back to the reign of Lebne-Dengel
(r.1508-1540) that is the pointed oval dome over
the center of the church of Bahir Gimb Mikael
considered as built by him.
 Painting: With a wealth of religious paintings on
manuscripts and on wood, ornaments, weapons
and other accessories especially, the churches
built by Queen Mentwab were known by beautiful
paintings, cross and an art works.
 Cont’d…
 Literature: The Imperial and provincial scriptoria
produced a great number of manuscripts. Besides
the Gospels, the Miracles of Mary, the Lives of
Ethiopian Saints and the Litanies, and many other
kinds of illuminated manuscripts were also
produced.
 Gondar is also known for its traditional medicine,
music and poetry.
 Trade and Urbanization: Gondar was a
commercial center that connected long distance
trade routes of the southern region with Massawa
and Metemma in the Ethio-Sudan border.
 Gold and salt were used as medium of exchange.
The appearance of daily market was known.
 Cont’d…
 With spread of urbanization, the city became
residences of foreign communities like Indians,
Greeks and Armenians. The city had an estimated
60,000-70,000 population.
 In addition to its political and commercial
importance, it served as religious center of
Christians, Muslims and Bete-Israel. Besides, it
served as the center of Ethiopian Orthodox
Church (residence of the abun and Ichege) until
the mid of 19th Century.
 Many of Orthodox churches served as education
centers (known by excellence in teaching
aqwaqwam), liturgical chanting was centered at
Gondar.
 II. The Period of Zemene-Mesafint (1769-1855)

 Zemene-Mesafint refers to the period when

actual position of political power was in the
hands of different regional lords.
 Zemene Mesafent was the period when
Ethiopia was divided within itself with no
effective central authority; the regional lords
constantly fought against each other for
expansion of their territory and to become the
guardian of the king.
 The period lasts from the time Ras Michael
Sehul "assassinated" king Iyoas in 1769 to
1855, when Kasa Hailu was crowned as
 Cont’d…
 Ras Mika’el who was a king maker in the period
took strong measures against the nobility. These
measures made him highly unpopular because of
which coalitions of lords of Gojjam, Amhara, Lasta
and Wollo that defeated him at the battle of
Sarba-Kussa in 1771.
 The main political regions that Zemene-Mesafint
lords ruled were Tigray, Semen, Dembiya,
Begemedir, Lasta, Yejju, Wollo, Gojjam and
Shewa.
 When compared to each other the “Yejju dynasty”
was the leading power during the Zemen-
Mesafint with the center at Debre-tabor. Ali
Gwangul (Ali I or Ali Talaq) was considered as the
founder of “Yejju dynasty” in 1786.
 Cont’d…
 Yejju rule reached its zenith under Gugsa
Marso (r.1803-1825) who made incessant
struggle against Ras Walde-Silassie of Enderta
and Dejjazmatch Sabagadis Woldu of Agame.
 In 1826, Gugsa's successor, Yimam (r.1825-8),
defeated Hayle-Mariam Gebre of Simen. Maru
of Dambiya was also killed at the battle of
Koso-Ber in 1827.
 The period of zemene mesafint was brought
to an end by Kasa Hailu of Qwara through a
series of battles that lasted from 1840s to
1855.
 Major features of Zemene-
Mesafint
 absence of effective central government;
 the growing power and influence of the regional
warlords;
 the domination of Yejju lords over other lords in
northern Ethiopia;
 rivalry and competition among regional lords to
assume the position of king maker;
 establishment of fragile coalition to advance political
interests;
 Ethiopian Orthodox Church was unable to play its
traditional role of unifying the state due to doctrinal
disputes;
 Revival of foreign contacts that ended the “Closed Door
Policy.”
 In addition to the above features, there were
developments in terms of literature, arts, architecture
Thank
you!