Chapter 1

Introduction

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Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: introduction
our goal: overview:
 get “feel” and  what’s the Internet?
terminology  what’s a protocol?
 more depth,
 network edge; hosts, access
net, physical media
detail later in  network core: packet/circuit
course switching, Internet structure
 approach:  performance: loss, delay,
 use Internet throughput
 security
as example  protocol layers, service
models
 history

Introduction 1-2
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-3
What’s the Internet: “nuts and
bolts” view
PC  millions of connected mobile network
server computing devices:
 hosts = end systems
wireless global ISP
laptop  running network apps
smartphone
home
 communication network
regional ISP
wireless
links
links  fiber, copper,
wired
links radio, satellite
 transmission
rate: bandwidth
 Packet switches:
router forward packets institutional
network
(chunks of data)
 routers and switches
Introduction 1-4
“Fun” internet appliances

Web-enabled toaster +
weather forecaster

IP picture frame
http://www.ceiva.com/

Tweet-a-watt:
monitor energy use

Slingbox: watch,
control cable TV remotely
Internet
refrigerator Internet phones
Introduction 1-5
Network As A Platform
Devices on a network – Symbols

1-6
Network As A Platform
Networks have Four basic elements in common:

⮚ Devices that exchange messages : Might be source or destination of data.

⮚ Messages that travel from one device to another.

⮚ Medium used to interconnect devices and transport messages: Wired or

Wireless media

⮚ Rules (protocols) to govern the handling of the message.

1-7
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view

mobile network
 Internet: “network of
networks”
 Interconnected ISPs global ISP

 protocols control sending,

receiving of msgs home
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, network
regional ISP
802.11
 Internet standards
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force

institutional
network

Introduction 1-8
What’s the Internet: a service view
mobile network
 Infrastructure that
provides services to global ISP
applications:
 Web, VoIP, email, games,
e-commerce, social nets, … home
network
 provides programming regional ISP
interface to apps
 hooks that allow sending
and receiving app
programs to “connect” to
Internet
 provides service options,
analogous to postal service
institutional
network

Introduction 1-9
What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather
 “I have a question” than humans
 introductions  all communication
activity in Internet
governed by
… specific msgs sent protocols
… specific actions
taken when msgs protocols define format,
received, or other order of msgs sent and
events
received among
network entities, and
actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt
Introduction 1-10
What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

Introduction 1-11
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-12
A closer look at network
structure:
 network edge: mobile network
 hosts: clients and servers
 servers often in data centers global ISP

home
 access networks, network
regional ISP
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication links

 network core:
 interconnected
routers institutional
 network of networks network

Introduction 1-13
Access networks and physical
media
Q: How to connect
end systems to
edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access
networks
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per
second) of access
network?
 shared or dedicated?
Introduction 1-14
Access net: digital subscriber
line (DSL)
central office telephone
network

DSL splitter
modem DSLAM

ISP
voice, data transmitted
at different frequencies over DSL access
dedicated line to central office multiplexer

 use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

 data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
 voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
 < 2.5 Mbps upstream transmission rate (typically <
1 Mbps)
 < 24 Mbps downstream transmission rate (typically
Introduction 1-15
Cable Network Architecture: Overview

cable headend

home
cable distribution
network (simplified)

Introduction 1-16
 Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter
modem

C
O
V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Channels

equency division multiplexing: different channels transmitte

different frequency bands
Introduction 1-17
Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter cable modem

modem CMTS termination system

data, TV transmitted at different

frequencies over shared cable ISP
distribution network

 HFC: hybrid fiber coax

 asymmetric: up to 30Mbps downstream transmission
rate, 2 Mbps upstream transmission rate
 network of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router
 homes share access network to cable headend
 unlike DSL, which has dedicated access to central office

Introduction 1-18
 Access net: home network

wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)

Introduction 1-19
Enterprise access networks
(Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

 typically used in companies, universities, etc

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
 today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet
switch

Introduction 1-20
Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network connects end system to
router
 via base station aka “access point”
wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access
 within building (100 ft)  provided by telco (cellular)
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 operator, 10’s km
Mbps transmission rate  between 1 and 10 Mbps
 3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet

to Internet

Introduction 1-21
Host: sends packets of data
host sending function:
takes application
message
two packets,
breaks into smaller
L bits each
chunks, known as packets,
of length L bits
transmits packet into
access network at 2 1
transmission rate R
R: link transmission rate
 link transmission rate, host
aka link capacity, aka
link bandwidth

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit =
delay packet into link R (bits/sec)
1-22
Physical media
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver
pairs twisted pair (TP)
 physical link: what lies  two insulated copper
between transmitter & wires
receiver  Category 5: 100
 guided media: Mbps, 1 Gpbs
Ethernet
 signals propagate in  Category 6: 10Gbps
solid media: copper,
fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate
freely, e.g., radio

Introduction 1-23
Ethernet Standards (Copper)
No metallic
shield which
makes them
more
vulnerable to
electrical
interference.
Four pairs of
cables twisted
together which
helps against
the
electromagnetic
interference.
Copper Cabling
- Twisted pair cabling comes in two
varieties: shielded and unshielded.
- Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the
most popular.
Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 high-speed operation:
 bidirectional  high-speed point-to-point
 broadband: transmission (e.g., 10’s-100’s
 multiple channels on Gpbs transmission rate)
cable  low error rate:
 HFC  repeaters spaced far apart
 immune to electromagnetic
noise

Introduction 1-26
Physical media: radio
 signal carried in radio link types:
electromagnetic  terrestrial microwave
 e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
spectrum  LAN (e.g., WiFi)
 no physical “wire”  11Mbps, 54 Mbps
 bidirectional  wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
 propagation  satellite
environment effects:  Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
 reflection multiple smaller channels)
 270 msec end-end delay
 obstruction by  geosynchronous versus low altitude
objects
 interference

Introduction 1-27
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-28
The network core
 mesh of
interconnected routers
 packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
 forward packets from
one router to the next,
across links on path
from source to
destination
 each packet transmitted
at full link capacity

Introduction 1-29
Packet-switching: store-and-
forward
L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to one-hop numerical

transmit (push out) L- example:
bit packet into link at R  L = 7.5 Mbits
bps  R = 1.5 Mbps
 store and forward:  one-hop transmission
entire packet must delay = 5 sec
arrive at router before
 end-end
it can bedelay = 2L/R
transmitted
(assuming
on next linkzero more on delay shortly …
propagation delay) Introduction 1-30
Packet Switching: queueing delay,
loss
R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate
of link for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer)
fills up

Introduction 1-31
Two key network-core
functions
routing: determines forwarding: move
source-destination route packets from router’s
taken by packets input to appropriate
 routing algorithms router output

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1
11
01

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
Network Layer 4-32
Alternative core: circuit
switching
end-end resources allocated
to, reserved for “call”
between source & dest:
 In diagram, each link has four
circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top
link and 1st circuit in right
link.
 dedicated resources: no
sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not
used by call (no sharing)
 Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks

Introduction 1-33
Circuit switching: FDM versus
TDM
Example:
FDM
4 users

frequency

time
TDM

frequency

time
Introduction 1-34
Numerical example
 How long does it take to send a file of
640,000 bits from host A to host B over
a circuit-switched network?
 All links are 1.536 Mbps
 Each link uses TDM with 24 slots/sec
 500 msec to establish end-to-end circuit

Let’s work it out!

Introduction 1-35
Packet switching versus circuit
switching
packet switching allows more users to use network!

example:
 1 Mb/s link
 each user: N

…..
• 100 kb/s when “active” users
• active 10% of time 1 Mbps link

 circuit-switching
(dedicated):
 10 users (1 Mbps /
100kbps)
 packetswitching Q: how did we get the value 0.000
(Shared):
 with 35 users, probability
> 10 active at same time
is less than .0004 *
* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples Introduction 1-36
Packet switching versus circuit switching

is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”

 great for bursty data
 resource sharing
 simpler, no call setup
 excessive congestion possible: packet delay and
loss
 protocols needed for reliable data transfer,
congestion control
 Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
 bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video
apps
 still an unsolved problem (chapter 7)
Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit
switching) versus on-demand allocation (packet-
switching)? Introduction 1-37
Internet structure: network of
networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs
(Internet Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to
each other
 Resulting network of networks is very complex
 Evolution was driven by economics and
national policies
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe
current Internet structure
 Internet structure: network of
networks
 roughly hierarchical
 at center: “tier-1” ISPs (e.g., Verizon, Sprint, AT&T,
Cable and Wireless), national/international
coverage
 treat each other as equals

Tier-1
providers
Tier 1 ISP
interconnec
t (peer)
privately
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP

Introduction 1-39
Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint
POP: point-of-presence

to/from backbone

peering
… …
.
…
…

to/from customers

Introduction 1-40
 Internet structure: network of
networks
 “Tier-2” ISPs: smaller (often regional) ISPs
 Connect to one or more tier-1 ISPs, possibly other tier-2 ISPs

Tier-2 ISPs
Tier-2 ISP pays Tier-2 ISP also peer
Tier-2 ISP privately with
tier-1 ISP for
connectivity to Tier 1 ISP each other.
rest of Internet
 tier-2 ISP is
customer of
tier-1 provider Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Introduction 1-41
 Internet structure: network of
networks
 “Tier-3” ISPs and local ISPs
 last hop (“access”) network (closest to end systems)

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Local and Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
tier- 3 ISPs
are Tier 1 ISP
customers of
higher tier
ISPs
connecting
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP
them to rest
of Internet local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-42
 Internet structure: network of
networks
 a packet passes through many networks!

local
ISP Tier 3 local
local local
ISP ISP
ISP ISP
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP

Tier 1 ISP

Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Tier-2 ISP

local
Tier-2 ISP Tier-2 ISP
ISP
local local local
ISP ISP ISP Introduction 1-43
Internet structure: network of
networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP?
Customer and provider ISPs have economic agreement.

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
…

…
global
access
net ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors ….

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A
…

…
access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors …. which must be interconnected
Internet exchange point
access
access
…
access
net net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
peering link
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of
networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access
nets to ISPS

access
… access
net
access
net …
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
…

…
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
… net
access access …
net access net
net
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-48
How do loss and delay
occur?
packets queue in router buffers
 packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds
output link capacity
 packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Introduction 1-49
Four sources of packet
delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

 check bit errors  time waiting at output
 determine output link link for transmission
 depends on congestion
 typically < msec level of router

Introduction 1-50
Four sources of packet delay
transmission
A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission dprop: propagation delay:

delay:  d: length of physical link
 L: packet length (bits)  s: propagation speed in
 R: link bandwidth (bps) medium (~2x108 m/sec)
 dtrans = L/R dtrans and dprop  dprop = d/s
very different
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay Introduction 1-51
Queueing delay (revisited)

average queueing
 R: link bandwidth (bps)

delay
 L: packet length (bits)
 a: average packet
arrival rate

traffic intensity
= La/R

 La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0

 La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large
 La/R > 1: more “work” arriving
than can be serviced, average delay
infinite!
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss La/R -> 1
Introduction 1-52
“Real” Internet delays and
routes
 what do “real” Internet delay & loss look like?
 traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along end-
end Internet path towards destination. For all i:
 sends three packets that will reach router i on path
towards destination
 router i will return packets to sender
 sender times interval between transmission and reply.

3 probes 3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-53
“Real” Internet delays, routes
traceroute: gaia.cs.umass.edu to www.eurecom.fr
3 delay measurements from
gaia.cs.umass.edu to cs-gw.cs.umass.edu
1 cs-gw (128.119.240.254) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
2 border1-rt-fa5-1-0.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.145) 1 ms 1 ms 2 ms
3 cht-vbns.gw.umass.edu (128.119.3.130) 6 ms 5 ms 5 ms
4 jn1-at1-0-0-19.wor.vbns.net (204.147.132.129) 16 ms 11 ms 13 ms
5 jn1-so7-0-0-0.wae.vbns.net (204.147.136.136) 21 ms 18 ms 18 ms
6 abilene-vbns.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.11.9) 22 ms 18 ms 22 ms
7 nycm-wash.abilene.ucaid.edu (198.32.8.46) 22 ms 22 ms 22 ms trans-oceanic
8 62.40.103.253 (62.40.103.253) 104 ms 109 ms 106 ms
9 de2-1.de1.de.geant.net (62.40.96.129) 109 ms 102 ms 104 ms link
10 de.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.96.50) 113 ms 121 ms 114 ms
11 renater-gw.fr1.fr.geant.net (62.40.103.54) 112 ms 114 ms 112 ms
12 nio-n2.cssi.renater.fr (193.51.206.13) 111 ms 114 ms 116 ms
13 nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.102) 123 ms 125 ms 124 ms
14 r3t2-nice.cssi.renater.fr (195.220.98.110) 126 ms 126 ms 124 ms
15 eurecom-valbonne.r3t2.ft.net (193.48.50.54) 135 ms 128 ms 133 ms
16 194.214.211.25 (194.214.211.25) 126 ms 128 ms 126 ms
17 * * *
18 * * * * means no response (probe lost, router not replying)
19 fantasia.eurecom.fr (193.55.113.142) 132 ms 128 ms 136 ms

* Do some traceroutes from exotic countries at www.traceroute.org

Introduction 1-54
Packet loss
 queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity
 packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka
lost)
 lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not at all
buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss Introduction 1-55
 Throughput
 throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which
bits transferred between sender/receiver
 instantaneous: rate at given point in time
 average: rate over longer period of time

server, with
server sends link capacity
pipe that can carry link capacity
pipe that can carry
file ofbits
F bits fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec fluid at rate
Rc bits/sec
to(fluid)
send into
to client
pipe Rs bits/sec) Rc bits/sec)

Introduction 1-56
Throughput (more)
 Rs < Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

 Rs > Rc What is average end-end throughput?

Rs bits/sec Rc bits/sec

bottleneck
link onlink
end-end path that constrains end-end
throughput
Introduction 1-57
Throughput: Internet
scenario
 per-connection
end-end Rs
throughput: Rs Rs
min(Rc,Rs,R/10)
 in practice: R or
c R
Rs is often
bottleneck Rc Rc

Rc

10 connections (fairly) share

backbone bottleneck link R bits/sec
Introduction 1-58
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-59
Protocol “layers”
Networks are
complex,
with many “piece
s”: Question:
 hosts is there any hope of
organizing structure of
 routers network?
 links of various
media …. or at least our
 applications discussion of networks?
 protocols
 hardware,
software
Introduction 1-60
Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

 a series of steps

Introduction 1-61
Layering of airline
functionality
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

layers: each layer implements a service

 via its own internal-layer actions
 relying on services provided by layer
below
Introduction 1-62
Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance,
updating of system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t
affect rest of system
 layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-63
Internet protocol stack
 application: supporting
network applications
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP application
 transport: process-process
data transfer transport
 TCP, UDP
 network: routing of datagrams network
from source to destination
 IP, routing protocols
link
 link: data transfer between
neighboring network elements physical
 Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire”

Introduction 1-64
ISO/OSI reference
model
 presentation: allow
applications to interpret the application
meaning of data, e.g.,
encryption, compression, presentation
machine-specific conventions
session
 session: synchronization,
checkpointing, recovery of transport
data exchange network
 Internet stack “missing”
these layers! link
 these services, if needed, must physical
be implemented in the
application and transport layers

Introduction 1-65
Protocol Interaction
 Communication between a web server and web client is an
example of an interaction between several protocols. The
protocols shown in the figure include:

HTTP - is an application protocol

that governs the way a web
server and a web client interact.
HTTP defines the content and
formatting of the requests and
responses that are exchanged
between the client and server.
Both the client and the web
server software implement HTTP
as part of the application. HTTP
relies on other protocols to
govern how the messages are
transported between the client
and server.

66
 Protocol Interaction
 Communication between a web server and web client is an
example of an interaction between several protocols. The
protocols shown in the figure include:

TCP - is the transport protocol that

manages the individual
conversations. TCP divides the
HTTP messages into smaller
pieces, called segments. These
segments are sent between the
web server and client processes
running at the destination host.
TCP is also responsible for
controlling the size and rate at
which messages are exchanged
between the server and the client.

67
 Protocol Interaction
 Communication between a web server and web client is an
example of an interaction between several protocols. The
protocols shown in the figure include:

IP - is responsible for taking the

formatted segments from TCP,
encapsulating them into packets,
assigning them the appropriate
addresses, and delivering them to
the destination host.

68
 Protocol Interaction
 Communication between a web server and web client is an
example of an interaction between several protocols. The
protocols shown in the figure include:

Ethernet - is a network access

protocol that describes two
primary functions: communication
over a data link and the physical
transmission of data on the
network media. Network access
protocols are responsible for
taking the packets from IP and
formatting them to be transmitted
over the media.

69
Message uses Multiple protocols
(encapsulation)
HTTP Example :
Data Web data
Protocols Header

IP Header TCP Header App

Frame Header Header Data Frame Trailer

◆ Encapsulation – Process of adding a headers to the data as it passes down.

◆ Decapsulation – Process of removing a header.

70
PDUS
 source Encapsulatio
message
segment Ht
M
M
application
transport
n
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application
Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-72
Putting It All Together

1. Converted to Binary.

2. NIC generates signals that represent these bits.

3. Passed among LAN devices.

4. Exit the local area (router).

73
Putting It all Together

The many interconnected devices worldwide

are often represented by a cloud.

5. Bits are transmitted to devices that

interconnect the networks.

74
Putting It All Together

6. Passed among local devices at the

destination.

7. The destination device converts the bits into human

readable form.

75
Putting It All Together

At each of these steps, there are protocols that

define the rules for device communication.

6 7
1 2 3 4

76
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-77
Network security
 field of network security:
 how bad guys can attack computer
networks
 how we can defend networks against
attacks
 how to design architectures that are
immune to attacks
 Internet not originally designed with
(much) security in mind
 original vision: “a group of mutually trusting
users attached to a transparent network” 
 Internet protocol designers playing “catch-
up”
 security considerations in all layers!
Introduction 1-78
Bad guys: put malware into hosts via
Internet
 malware can get in host from:
 virus: self-replicating infection by
receiving/executing object (e.g., e-mail
attachment)
 worm: self-replicating infection by passively
receiving object that gets itself executed
 spyware malware can record
keystrokes, web sites visited, upload
info to collection site
 infected host can be enrolled in botnet,
used for spam. DDoS attacks

Introduction 1-79
Bad guys: attack server, network infrastructure

Denial of Service (DoS): attackers make resources

(server, bandwidth) unavailable to legitimate traffic
by overwhelming resource with bogus traffic

1. select target
2. break into hosts around
the network (see botnet)

3. send packets to target

from compromised
hosts target

Introduction 1-80
Bad guys can sniff packets
packet “sniffing”:
 broadcast media (shared ethernet, wireless)
 promiscuous network interface reads/records all
packets (e.g., including passwords!) passing by

A C

src:B dest:A payload

B
 wireshark software used for end-of-chapter
labs is a (free) packet-sniffer
Introduction 1-81
 Bad guys can use fake
addresses
IP spoofing: send packet with false source
address
A C

src:B dest:A payload

… lots more on security (throughout, Chapter 8)

Introduction 1-82
Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 networks under attack: security
1.7 history

Introduction 1-83
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock -  1972:
queueing theory  ARPAnet public demo
shows effectiveness  NCP (Network Control
of packet-switching Protocol) first host-host
 1964: Baran - protocol
packet-switching in  first e-mail program
military nets
 ARPAnet has 15 nodes
 1967: ARPAnet
conceived by
Advanced Research
Projects Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet
node operational

Introduction 1-84
Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets

 1970: ALOHAnet satellite

network in Hawaii Cerf and Kahn’s
 1974: Cerf and Kahn - internetworking
architecture for principles:
interconnecting networks  minimalism, autonomy -
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox no internal changes
PARC required to interconnect
networks
 late70’s: proprietary  best effort service model
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
 stateless routers
XNA
 decentralized control
 late 70’s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM define today’s Internet
precursor) architecture
 1979: ARPAnet has 200
nodes
Introduction 1-85
Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

 1983: deployment of  new national

TCP/IP networks: Csnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail BITnet, NSFnet,
protocol defined Minitel
 1983: DNS defined  100,000 hosts
for name-to-IP- connected to
address translation confederation of
 1985: ftp protocol networks
defined
 1988: TCP
congestion control

Introduction 1-86
Internet history
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
 early 1990’s: ARPAnet late 1990’s – 2000’s:
decommissioned  more killer apps:
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions
instant messaging,
on commercial use of NSFnet P2P file sharing
(decommissioned, 1995)
 network security to
 early 1990s: Web
 hypertext [Bush 1945, forefront
 est. 50 million host,
Nelson 1960’s]
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee 100 million+ users
 1994: Mosaic, later  backbone links
Netscape running at Gbps
 late 1990’s:
commercialization of the
Web

Introduction 1-87
Internet history
2005-present
 ~750 million hosts
 Smartphones and tablets
 Aggressive deployment of broadband access
 Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
 Emergence of online social networks:
 Facebook: soon one billion users
 Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their
own networks
 Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneous”
access to search, emai, etc.
 E-commerce, universities, enterprises running
their services in “cloud” (eg, Amazon EC2)

Introduction 1-88