SWITCHGEAR AND

PROTECTION(3170908)
GTU CODE:3170908

Chapter 1: Fundamental of Power

System Protection

Prof.(Dr.) V.J.Upadhyay
Professor, EED,GEC-Modasa
 Power system protection
Power system protection is a branch of electrical
power engineering that deals with the protection of
electrical power systems from faults through the
isolation of faulted parts from the rest of the
electrical network.
The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the
power system stable by isolating only the
components that are under fault.
Protection systems usually comprise five components:
 Current and Voltage Transformer: to step down the
high voltages and currents of the electrical power
system to convenient levels for the relays to deal with
 Protective Relays: to sense the fault and initiate a trip,
or disconnection, order.
 Circuit Breakers: to open/close the system based on
relay and auto re-closer commands.
 Batteries: to provide power in case of power
disconnection in the system.
 Communication Channels: to allow analysis of current
and voltage at remote terminals of a line and to allow
remote tripping of equipment.
 What is Relay?
A relay is automatic device which senses an abnormal
condition of electrical circuit and closes its contacts. These
contacts in turns close and complete the circuit breaker trip
coil circuit hence make the circuit breaker tripped for
disconnecting the faulty portion of the electrical circuit from
rest of the healthy circuit.
 Functions of protective Relay
 To sound an alarm or to close the trip circuit of a circuit
breaker so as to disconnect Faulty Section.
 To disconnect the abnormally operating part so as to
prevent subsequent faults. For example: Overload
protection of a machine not only protects the machine but
also prevents Insulation failure.
 To isolate or disconnect faulted circuits or equipment
quickly from the remainder of the system so the system
can continue to function and to minimize the damage to
the faulty part. For example : If machine is disconnected
immediately after a winding fault, only a few coils may
need replacement. But if the fault is sustained, the entire
winding may get damaged and machine may be beyond
repairs.
Functions of protective Relay cont…
 To localize the effect of fault by disconnecting the faulty
part from healthy part, causing least disturbance to the
healthy system.
 To disconnect the faulty part quickly so as to improve
system stability, service continuity and system
performance. Transient stability can be improved by means
of improved protective relaying.
 To minimize hazards to personnel
 Desirable qualities of protective
relaying
1. Selectivity
2. Reliability
3. Dependability
4. Security
5. Discrimination
6. Stability
7. Sensitivity
8. Speed & Time
9. Economics
10. Power consumption
 Desirable qualities of protective
relaying
1. SELECTIVITY:
• It is the ability of the protective device to operate correctly to
the faults or abnormal conditions inside the zone of protection.
• It refers to the minimum level of fault current at which the
protective device operates. Protective devices with good
sensitivity can sense any faults within the zone of protection
with respect to different fault locations, different fault types,
and even different fault resistance.
 Desirable qualities of protective
relaying
2. RELIABILITY:
• Reliability is the ability of protection devices to operate
properly during the period they are in service. It is also
defined as the ability of protective devices to operate properly
during their operational life.
• A relaying system has to be reliable. Reliability can be
achieved by redundancy i.e. duplicating the relaying system.
Obviously redundancy can be a costly proposition.
• A quantitative measure for reliability is defined as follows

100
 Desirable qualities of protective relaying

3. DEPENDIBILITY:
• A relay is said to be dependable if it trips only when it is
expected to trip.
• This happens either when the fault is in it's primary jurisdiction
or when it is called upon to provide the back-up protection.
• False tripping of relays or tripping for faults that is either not
within it's jurisdiction, or within it's purview, compromises
system operation. Power system may get unnecessarily
stressed or else there can be loss of service.
• Dependability is the degree of certainty that the relay will
operate correctly
• Dependability can be improved by increasing the sensitivity of
the relaying system.
100
 Desirable qualities of protective relaying
4. SECURITY:
• security is a property used to characterize false tripping on the
relays.
• A relay is said to be secure if it does not trip when it is not
expected to trip. It is the degree of certainty that the relay
will not operate incorrectly
• False trips do not just create nuisance. They can even
compromise system security.
• For example, tripping of a tie-line in a two area system can
result in load-generation imbalance in each area which can be
dangerous.
• Dependability and security are contrasting requirements.
• Security of the relaying system can be improved by improving
selectivity of the relaying system.

100
 Desirable qualities of protective relaying
5. DISCRIMINATION:

• A protection system should be able to discriminate between

fault and abnormal/loading conditions even when the
minimum fault current is less than the maximum full load
current.
• It should also discriminate between fault and power swing.
• Magnetizing inrush current at the time of switching of
transformer should not be misinterpreted as internal fault.

6. STABILITY:
 Types of Relays
1) Number of Operating Quntities

1. Single Qty. i.e Over current relay.

2. Two Qty. i.e Distance, Differential

relay
3. Multi Qty.
2) Based on Characteristic or Time of
Operation

1. Instantaneous Relays
2. Definite time Relays.
3. Time Delay
4. Inverse definite minimum
time Relays (IDMT)
5. IDMT with Instantaneous
6. Stepped Characteristic
 Based on logic
1. Differential 7. Distance Schemes

2. Unbalance 8. Bus bar Protection

3. Neutral Displacement 9. Reverse Power Relays

4. Directional 10. Loss of excitation

5. Restricted Earth Fault 11. Negative Phase Sequence

Relays etc.
6. Over Fluxing
Based on Actuating parameter
1. Current Relays

2. Voltage Relays

3. Frequency Relays

4. Power Relays etc.

 Based on Applications
1. Primary Relays.

2. Backup Relays.
 Based on Operation Mechanism
Electromagnetic Relay:

Electromagnetic relays are further categorized under two

following categories:

(A) Electromagnetic Attraction Relay:

This Relay works on Electromagnetic Attraction Principle

(B) Electromagnetic Induction Relay:

This Relay works on Electromagnetic Induction Principle
Solid State (Static) Relay:
Solid-state (and static) relays are further categorized under
following designations.

(A) Analog Relay:

In Analog relays are measured quantities are converted

into lower voltage but similar signals, which are then
combined or compared directly to reference values in level
detectors to produce the desired output.

(B) Digital Relay:

In Digital relays measured ac quantities are manipulated

in analogue form and subsequently converted into square-
wave (binary) voltages. Logic circuits or microprocessors
compare the phase relationships of the square waves to
make a trip decision.
(C) Numerical Relay:

In Numerical relays measured ac quantities are

sequentially sampled and converted into numeric data form.
A microprocessor performs mathematical and/or logical
operations on the data to make trip decisions.
 Evolution of Digital Relays from
Electromechanical Relays
 The evolution of protective relays begins with the
electromechanical relays.
 Over the past decade it upgraded from electromechanical
to solid state technologies to predominate use of
microprocessors and microcontrollers.
 The timeline of the development of protective relays is
shown below
 Electromechanical Relay
History of Relay:

This is the first generation oldest relaying system and they

have been in use for many years. They have earned a well-
deserved reputation for accuracy, dependability, and
reliability.
There are two basic types of operating mechanisms:

the electromagnetic-attraction relay and

electromagnetic-induction relay.
Measuring Principles:
The electromechanical protective relay converts the voltages
and currents to magnetic and electric forces and torques that
press against spring tensions in the relay. The tension of the
spring and taps on the electromagnetic coils in the relay are
the main processes by which a user sets in a relay.

Function of Relay:
These relays are usually instantaneous in action, with no
intentional time delay, closing as soon after pickup as the
mechanical motion permits. We can add time delay by means
of a bellows, dashpot, or a clockwork escapement
mechanism. However, the timing accuracy is considerably
less precise than that of induction type relays. As such, users
seldom choose these relays with time delay in switchgear
applications.
 Function of Relay Cont…
 Electromechanical Relays can operate with either AC or DC
on the coils. Therefore, the DC component of an
asymmetrical fault definitely affects these relays using this
principle.
 Most relays come enclosed in a semi flush-mounting draw
out case. Installers typically install relays usually on the
door of the switchgear cubicle. They bring sensor and
control wiring to connections on the case. The relay inserts
into the case and connects by means of small switches or a
bridging plug, depending on the manufacturer.
 As such, we can disconnect and withdraw it from the case
without disturbing the wiring. When the relay is
disconnected, the current transformer (CT) connections in
the case are automatically shorted to short circuit the CT
secondary winding and protect the CT from over voltage
and damage.
 Operation of Electromagnetic-attraction Relay

Figure shows a typical

electro-mechanical relay.
 An input voltage is applied
to the coil mechanism. The
input voltage magnetizes
the core which pulls the arm
towards it.
This action causes the
output contacts to touch,
closing the load circuit.
When the input voltage is
removed, the spring lever
will push the contacts away
from each other, breaking
the load circuit connection.
 Operation of Electromagnetic-Induction Relay

 Induction relays are

available in many variations
to provide accurate pickup
and time-current responses
for a wide range of simple or
complex system.
 They are actually like
induction motors. On the
relay, the moving element
(rotor) is usually a metal
disk, although sometimes
it's a metal cylinder or cup.
Figure: Induction Disk Relay
 The stationary part (stator) is one or more integral
electromagnets, with current or potential coils inducing
currents in the disk, causing it to rotate. Until the rotational
forces are great enough to turn the disk and bring its
moving contact against the stationary contact, a spring
restrains the disk motion.

 The greater the sensed fault, the greater the current in the
coils, and the faster the disk rotates.
 Limitations of Electromagnetic relays
 Low speed of operation.

 Change in characteristics over a period due to ageing effect.

 Component failure leading to relay failure.

 Relay is Bulky: Because there are internal mechanical

components with physical dimension restraints.

 Excessive power consumption.

 Imposes high burden on CT.

 No fault data available except phase indication.

 Limitations of Electromagnetic relays cont…

 Inherent in its design, the Electromechanical Relay must

make mechanical contacts in order to switch a load. At the
point of these contacts, oxidation breakdown occurs over
extended life cycling and the relay will need to be
replaced.
 When an electromechanical Relay is activated, bounce
occurs at the contact site. Bounce creates a window of time
where the load circuit is flickering between open and
closed, a condition which may need to be considered in
load design.

 Isolation voltage is another area where Electromechanical

Relays are limited.
 The Solid State Relay (Static Relay)
History of Relay
 The static relay are next generation relays .The Solid Static
relays was first introduced in 1960’s. The term “static”
implies that the relay has no moving mechanical parts in it.
Compared to the Electromechanical Relay.
 The Solid Static relay has longer life-span, decreased
noise when operates and faster respond speed. However, it
is not as robust as the Electromechanical Relay.
 Static relays were manufactured as semi conductor
devices which incorporate transistors, ICs, capacitors,
small micro processors etc.
 The static relays have been designed to replace almost all
the functions which were being achieved earlier by
electromechanical relays.
 Measuring principles
 The working principle of the Solid Static relays is similar to
that of the Electromechanical Relay which means the Solid
Static relays can perform tasks that the Electromechanical
Relay can perform.
 The Solid Static relays use analogue electronic devices
instead of magnetic coils and mechanical components to
create the relay characteristics.
 The measurement is carried out by static circuits
consisting of comparators, level detectors, filter etc while in
a conventional electro-magnetic relay it is done by
comparing operating torque (or force) with restraining
torque (or force).
 Function of Relay
 Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors
and diodes in conjunction with resistors, capacitors,
inductors, etc., but advances in electronics enabled the use
of linear and digital integrated circuits in later versions for
signal processing and implementation of logic functions.
 While basic circuits may be common to a number of relays,
the packaging was still essentially restricted to a single
protection function per case, while complex functions
required several cases of hardware suitably interconnected.
 Function of Relay cont…
 User programming was restricted to the basic functions of
adjustment of relay characteristic curves. Therefore it can
be viewed in simple terms as an analogue electronic
replacement for electromechanical relays, with some
additional flexibility in settings and some saving in space
requirements.

 In some cases, relay burden is reduced, making for

reduced CT/VT output requirements. in a static relay there is
no armature or other moving element and response is
developed by electronic, magnetic or other components
without mechanical motion.
 A relay using combination of both static and electro-
magnetic units is also called a static relay provided that
static units accomplish the response.
Operation of Relay:
The essential components of static relays are shown in fig.
The output of CT and PT are not suitable for static
components so they are brought down to suitable level by
auxiliary CT and PT.
Then auxiliary CT output is given to rectifier. Rectifier
rectifies the relaying quantity i.e., the output from a CT or
PT or a Transducer
 Operation of Relay cont…
The rectified output is supplied to a measuring unit
comprising of comparators, level detectors, filters, logic
circuits.
The output is actuated when the dynamic input (i.e., the
relaying quantity) attains the threshold value.
This output of the measuring unit is amplified by amplifier
and fed to the output unit device, which is usually an
electro-magnetic one.
The output unit energizes the trip coil only when relay
operates.
 Advantages of Solid State Relay
 Static Relay burden is less than Electromagnetic type of
relays. Hence error is less.
 Low Weight.
 Required Less Space which results in panel space saving.
 Arc less switching.
 No acoustical noise.
 Multi-function integration.
 Fast response.
 Long life (High Reliability): more than 109 operations
 High Range of Setting compared to electromechanical
Relay.
 More Accurate compared to electromechanical Relay
 Low Electromagnetic Interference.
 Less power consumption.
 Advantages of Solid State Relay cont…
Shock and vibration resistant
 No contact bounce
 Microprocessor compatible.
 Isolation of Voltage
 No moving parts: There are no moving parts to wear out or
arcing contacts to deteriorate that are often the primary
cause of failure with an Electro Mechanical Relay.

 No mechanical contact bounce or arcing: A solid-state

relay doesn't depend on mechanical forces or moving
contacts for its operation but performs electronically. Thus,
timing is very accurate even for currents as low as the
pickup value. There is no mechanical contact bounce or
arcing, and reset times are extremely short.
 Advantages of Solid State Relay cont…
 Low input signal levels: Ideal for Telecommunication or
microprocessor control industries. Solid state relays are
fast becoming the better choice in many applications,
especially throughout the telecommunication and
microprocessor control industries.
 Cost Issues: In the past, there has been a rather large gap
between the price of an electromechanical relay and the
price of a solid state relay. With continual advancement in
manufacturing technology, this gap has been reduced
dramatically making the advantages of solid state
technology accessible to a growing number of design
engineers
 Limitations of static relays
 Auxiliary voltage requirement for Relay Operation.

 Static relays are sensitive to voltage transients which are

caused by operation of breaker and isolator in the primary
circuit of CTs and PTs.
 Serious over voltage is also caused by breaking of control
circuit, relay contacts etc. Such voltage spikes of small
duration can damage the semiconductor components and
also cause mal operation of relays.

 Temperature dependence of static relays: The

characteristics of semiconductor devices are affected by
ambient temperature.
 Limitations of static relays cont…
Highly sophisticated isolation and filter circuits are
required to be built into the relay design to take care of
electromagnetic interference and transient switching
disturbances in the power system.
 Highly reliable power supply circuits are required.

 Effect of environmental conditions like humidity, high

ambient temperature, dust accumulation on PCB leading to
tracking.
 The component failure.

 Non availability of fault data.

 Characteristic variations with passage of time.

 Digital Relay
History of Relay
 Around 1980s the digital relay entered in the market.

 Compared to the Solid State Relay, the digital relay takes

the advantages of the development of microprocessors and
microcontrollers.
 Instead of using analog signals, the digital relay converts
all measured analog quantities into digital signals.
 Digital protection relays is a revolution step in changing
Relay technology.
By the mid-1990s the solid state and electromechanical
relay had been mostly replaced by digital relay in new
construction.

In distribution applications, the replacement by the digital

relay proceeded a bit more slowly.
 While the great majority of feeder relays in new
applications today are digital, the solid state relay still sees
some use where simplicity of the application allows for
simpler relays, and which allows one to avoid the
complexity of digital relays.
 Measuring principles
 Compared to static relays, digital relays introduce
Analogue to Digital Convertor (A/D conversion) of all
measured analogue quantities and use a microprocessor to
implement the protection algorithm.

 The microprocessor may use some kind of counting

technique, or use the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) to
implement the algorithm.
 The Microprocessors used in Digital Relay have limited
processing capacity and memory compared to that
provided in numerical relays.
 Function of Relay
 The functionality tends therefore to be limited and
restricted largely to the protection function itself.
 Additional functionality compared to that provided by an
electromechanical or static relay is usually available.
 A communications link to a remote computer may also be
provided.
 The limited power of the microprocessors used in digital
relays restricts the number of samples of the waveform that
can be measured per cycle.
 This, in turn, limits the speed of operation of the relay in
certain applications.
 Therefore, a digital relay for a particular protection function
may have a longer operation time than the static relay
equivalent. However, the extra time is not significant in
terms of overall tripping time and possible effects of power
system stability.
Operation of Relay:

Digital relay consists of:

(1) Analogue input subsystem,
(2) Digital input subsystem,
(3) Digital output subsystem,
(4) A processor along with RAM (data scratch pad), main
memory (historical data file) and Power supply
 Operation of Relay cont…

Digital relaying involves digital processing of one or more

analog signals in three steps:
Conversion of analogue signal to digital form

Processing of digital form

Boolean decision to trip or not to trip

 Advantages of Digital Relay

 High level of functionality integration.

 Additional monitoring functions.
 Functional flexibility.
 Capable of working under a wide range of temperatures.
 They can implement more complex function and are
generally more accurate
 Self-checking and self-adaptability.
 Able to communicate with other digital equipment
 Less sensitive to temperature, aging
 Economical because can be produced in volumes
 More Accurate.
 plane for distance relaying is possible
 Signal storage is possible
 Limitations of Digital Relay
 Short lifetime due to the continuous development of new
technologies.
 The devices become obsolete rapidly.

 Susceptibility to power system transients.

 As digital systems become increasingly more complex

they require specially trained staff for Operation.

 Proper maintenance of the settings and monitoring data.

 Numerical Relay
History of Relay
 The first protection devices based on microprocessors
were employed in 1985.
 The widespread acceptance of numerical technology by
the customer and the experiences of the user helped in
developing the second generation numerical relays in 1990.
 Conventional electromechanical and static relays are hard
wired relays. Their wiring is fixed, only their setting can be
manually changed.
 Numeric relays are programmable relays. The
characteristics and behavior of the relay are can be
programmed.
 History of Relay cont…
 First generation numerical relays were mainly designed to
meet the static relay protection characteristic.
 Whereas modern numeric protection devices are capable
of providing complete protection with added functions like
control and monitoring.
 Numerical protection devices offer several advantages in
terms of protection, reliability, and trouble shooting and
fault information.

 The distinction between digital and numerical relay rests

on points of fine technical detail, and is rarely found in
areas other than Protection.
 History of Relay cont…
They can be viewed as natural developments of digital
relays as a result of advances in technology.
Typically, they use a specialized digital signal processor
(DSP) as the computational hardware, together with the
associated software tools.
 Measuring principles
 The input analogue signals are converted into a digital
representation and processed according to the appropriate
mathematical algorithm.
 Processing is carried out using a specialized
microprocessor that is optimized for signal processing
applications, known as a digital signal processor, DSP.
 Digital processing of signals in real time requires a very
high power microprocessor.
 The measuring principles and techniques of conventional
relays (electromechanical and static) are fewer than those
of the numerical technique, which can differ in many
aspects like the type of protection algorithm used,
sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software
discipline, etc.
 These are microprocessor-based relays in contrast to
other relays that are electromechanically controlled.
 Function of Relay
 Modern power system protection devices are built with
integrated functions.
 Multifunction like protection, control, monitoring and
measuring are available today in numeric power system
protection devices.
 Also, the communication capability of these devices
facilitates remote control, monitoring and data transfer.
 Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection
relays offered single-function, single characteristics,
whereas modern numeric protection offers multi-function
and multiple characteristics.
 Function of Relay cont…
 The measuring principles and techniques of conventional
relays (electromechanical and static) are fewer than those
of the numerical technique, which can differ in many
aspects like the type of protection algorithm used,
sampling, signal processing, hardware selection, software
discipline, etc.
 Numerical relays are micro processor based relays and
having the features of recording of parameter used as
disturbance recorder flexibility of setting & alarms & can be
used one relay for all type of protections of one equipment
hence less area is required.
 Wide Range of setting, more accurate, Low burden hence
low VA of CT is required which minimize the cost. Numeric
relays take the input analog quantities and convert them to
numeric values. All of the relaying functions are performed
 Function of Relay cont…
 The following sections cover: relay hardware, relay
software, multiple protection characteristics, adaptive
protection characteristics, data storage, instrumentation
feature, self-check feature, communication capability,
additional functions, size and cost-effectiveness.
 These relays provide great precision and convenience in
application in the sophisticated electronic products.
 By combining several functions in one case, numerical
relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over
electromechanical relays.
 The disadvantages of a conventional electromechanical
relay are overcome by using micro controller for realizing
the operation of the relays.
 Micro controller based relays perform very well and their
cost is relatively low
 Function of Relay cont…
 Also, the communication capability of these devices
facilitates remote control, monitoring and data transfer.
 Traditionally, electromechanical and static protection
relays offered single-function, single characteristics,
whereas modern numeric protection offers multifunction
and multiple characteristics.
 Some protections also offer adaptable characteristics,
which dynamically change the protection characteristic
under different system conditions by monitoring the input
parameters.
 Operation of Relay
 A current signal from CT is converted into proportional
voltage signal using I to V converter.
 The ac voltage proportional to load current is converted
into dc using precision rectifier and is given to multiplexer
(MUX) which accepts more than one input and gives one
output.
 Microprocessor sends command signal to the multiplexer
to switch on desired channel to accept rectified voltage
proportional to current in a desired circuit.
 Output of Multiplexer is fed to analog to digital converter
(ADC) to obtain signal in digital form.
 Operation of Relay cont…
 Microprocessor then sends a signal ADC for start of
conversion (SOC), examines whether the conversion is
completed and on receipt of end of conversion (EOC) from
ADC, receives the data in digital form.
 The microprocessor then compares the data with pick-up
value. If the input is greater than pick-up value the
microprocessor send a trip signal to circuit breaker of the
desired circuit.
 Incase of instantaneous over current relay there is no
intentional time delay and circuit breaker trips instantly.
 In case of normal inverse, very inverse, extremely inverse
and long inverse over current relay the inverse current-time
characteristics are stored in the memory of microprocessor
in tabular form called as look-up table.
 Advantages of Numerical relays
(performance and operational characteristics of digital protection )

Compact Size: Electromechanical Relay makes use of

mechanical comparison devices, which cause the main
reason for the bulky size of relays. While Numerical Relay is
in Compact Size and use Indication on LCD for Relay
activation.

Flexibility: A variety of protection functions can be

accomplished with suitable modifications in the software
only either with the same hardware or with slight
modifications in the hardware.

Reliability: A significant improvement in the relay reliability is

obtained because the use of fewer components results in
less interconnections and reduced component failures.
 Multi Function Capability: Traditional electromechanical
and static protection relays offers single-function and
single characteristics. Range of operation of
electromechanical relays is narrow as compared to
numerical relay.
 Different types of relay characteristics: It is possible to
provide better matching of protection characteristics since
these characteristics are stored in the memory of the
microprocessor.
 Digital communication capabilities: The microprocessor
based relay furnishes easy interface with digital
communication equipments. Fiber optical communication
with substation LAN.
Modular frame: The relay hardware consists of standard
modules resulting in ease of service.

Low burden: The microprocessor based relays have

minimum burden on the instrument transformers.

Sensitivity: Greater sensitivity and high pickup ratio.

Speed: With static relays, tripping time of ½ cycle or even

less can be obtained.

Data History: Availability of fault data and disturbance record.

Helps analysis of faults by recording details of (1) Nature of
fault, (2) Magnitude of fault level, (3) Breaker problem, (4) C.T.
saturation , (5) Duration of fault.
Auto Resetting & Self Diagnosis: Electromechanical relay do
not have the ability to detect whether the normal condition
has been attained once it is activated thus auto resetting is
not possible and it has to be done by the operating
personnel. while in Numerical Relay auto Resetting is
Possible
By combining several functions in one case, numerical relays
also save capital cost and maintenance cost over
electromechanical relays
 Separate connection is not required, zero sequence
voltages and currents can be derived inside the processor
 Basic hardware is shared between multiple functions, the
cost of individual protection functions can be reduced
significantly.
 Loss of voltage feature helps block the relay in case of
momentary/permanent loss of voltage.
 Limitations of Numerical Relay
 Numerical Relay offers more functionality, and greater
precision. Unfortunately, that does not necessarily translate
into better protection.
 Numerical Relay can make faster decisions. However, in
the real world, faster protection itself is of no value because
circuit breakers are still required to interrupt at the direction
of the protective equipment, and the ability to make circuit
breakers interrupt faster is very limited.

 Numerical Relay protection often relies on non-proprietary

software, exposing the system to potential risk of hacking.
 Limitations of Numerical Relay cont…
 Numerical Relay protection sometimes has exposure to
externally-sourced transient interference that would not
affect conventional technology.
 Numerical Relay protection shares common functions.
This means that there are common failure modes that can
affect multiple elements of protection.
 For example, failure of a power supply or an input signal
processor may disable an entire protective device that
provides many different protection functions. This problem
has receive a lot of design attention, and experience.
 Limitations of Numerical Relay cont…

 A multifunction numeric relay can provide three phase,

ground, and negative sequence directional or non-
directional over current protection with four shot re-closer,
forward or reverse power protection, breaker failure,
over/under frequency, and over/under voltage protection,
sync check, breaker monitoring and control, It would take
10 – 11 single function Solid State or Electromechanical
relays at least 5 to 6 times the cost.
 Additionally Numeric relays have Communications
capabilities, sequence-of-events recording, fault reporting,
rate-of-change frequency, and metering functions, all in an
integrated system.
Comparison of Different Type Relay

Static Relay Digital Relay Numerical

Character Electro Relay
istic Mechanical
Relay

1st Present Present

Technology y generation 2nd generation generation
Standard Relays. generation Relays. Relays.

Relays.

Operating
Principle They use In this relays They use They use
principle of transistors Microprocess Microprocess
Reference:
 Handbook of Switchgear – Bhel
 Digital/Numerical Relays -T.S.M.Rao

Source:
http://electricalnotes.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/types- and-
revolution-of-electrical-relays/