Machine Design 1

Machine Design
• The subject Machine Design is the creation of new and better
machines and improving the existing ones. A new or better
machine is one which is more economical in the overall cost of
production and operation.
• The process of design is a long and time consuming one. From
the study of existing ideas, a new idea has to be conceived. The
idea is then studied keeping in mind its commercial success and
given shape and form in the form of drawings.
• In the preparation of these drawings, care must be taken of the
availability of resources in money, in men and in materials
required for the successful completion of the new idea into an
actual reality.
• In designing a machine component, it is necessary to have a
good knowledge of many subjects such as Mathematics,
Engineering mechanics, Strength of Materials, Theory of
Machines, Workshop Processes and Engineering Drawing.
 TYPES OF MACHINE DESIGN
Adaptive design:
The designer only makes minor alteration (or)
modifications in the existing designs of the product.
Development design:
Modifying existing designs into a new idea by
adopting a new material or different method of
manufacture.
New design:
This type of design needs lot of research, technical
ability and creative thinking.
 INTRODUCTION
Engineering Design:
 Engineering design is a process of applying
various scientific principles and techniques for purpose
of defining in detail a product (or) a process (or) a
system to its realisation.
 In simpler words design is formulation of a plan,
for execution towards satisfying a needs.
 Machine Design is defined as to fix dimension for
machine components.
VARIOUS STEPS IN DESIGN PROCESS
VARIOUS STEPS IN DESIGN PROCESS

Recongnition of a need:
Identifying the customer needs through market research.
Definition of the problem:
Preparation of complete list of technical specifications.
Synthesis:
Collection of new ideas (or) modifying the existing
Ideas.
Analysis:
 The forces acting on the component are determined.
 The material for the component is selected.
 The geometric dimensions of the component are determined.
 CONTINUE…
Evaluation:
The possible success of the proposal should be
verified from technical and economical stand points.
Detailed Design:
It’s the actual sizing and dimensioning all individual
components in the part.
Proto-type & Testing:
Proto-type testing may lead to some modification.
Production:
Actual component manufactured at shop floor.
 General considerations in machine design
1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load
2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine
3. Selection of materials
4. Form and size of the parts
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication
6. Convenient and economical features
7. Use of standard parts
8. Safety of operation
9. Workshop facilities
10. Number of machines to be manufactured
11. Cost of construction
 Engineering materials
a) Metals
b) Non-metals
Metals:
Ferrous – Which contains iron as the major constituent
Ex. Steel, Cast Iron
Non-ferrous – materials don't contains Iron.
Ex. Copper, Aluminium
Non-Metals:
(i) Ceramic materials – oxides, carbides and nitrides of various
metals. Ex. Glass, Brick, Concrete, Cement etc.
(ii) Organic materials – Polymeric materials composed of
carbon compounds. Ex: Paper, fuel, rubber, paints, etc.
 Factors to be considered for the selection of materials

1. Availability
2. Cost
3. Physical properties
4. Mechanical Properties
5. Manufacturing process
Physical properties:
 Colour Electical conductivity
 Shape Thermal conductivity
 Size
 Density
 Fatigue
• Definition: Damage accumulated through the
application of repeated stress cycles

• Variable amplitude loadings cause different levels of

fatigue
• Fatigue is cumulative through the life of an
engineering element
 Direct Stress
Load:
Any external force acting upon a machine member
Types of load:
(i) Dead (or) Steady (or) Static load:
The load which does not change in magnitude
and direction.
Ex. Self weight
(ii) Live (or) Varying load:
The load which is continuously changing.
Ex. Vehicle pass over a bridge
 Continue…
(iii) Suddenly applied load (or) shock load:
The load which is applied suddenly
Ex: Blows of a hammer

(iv) Impact load:

The load which is applied with some initial
velocity (or) The load which is dropped from certain
height.
Ex: forging
 Continue…
Stress:
The internal resistance of force per unit area is called
stress.
σ =P/A
Where P = Load or force acting on the body
A = Cross- sectional area of the body
Strain:
The rate of change of deformation (or) It’s the ratio of
change in dimension to the original dimension.
e =δl/l
Relationship between σ,e,E, δl
Deformation, ( δl ) =pl/AE
 TYPES OF STRESSES AND STRAINS

Tensile Stress: The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal
and opposite pulls as result of which there is an increase in length, is
known as tensile stress. The ratio of increase in length to the original
length is known as tensile strain.
P
Tensile stress σ = Resisting force = A
Cross sectional area l
and tensile strain, ε = Increase length = l
Original length
 Compressive Stress
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to
two equal and opposite pushes as a result of
which there is a decrease in length of the body,
is known as compressive stress. The ratio of
decrease in length to the original length is
known as compressive strain. P
Compressive stress, σ = Resisting force = A
Cross sectional area
l
Compressive strain, ε = Decrease in length = l
Original length
 Shear Stress:
The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two
equal and opposite forces which are acting
tangentially across the resisting section as a result
of which the body tends to shear off across the
section, is known as shear P stress. The
corresponding strain is known as shear strain.
A
Shear stress, q = Shear resistance = l
Shear area l
Shear strain Φ = Transverse displacement =
Distance
 Hooke’s Law

It states that, “ Within elastic limit the stress

induced in the material is directly proportional to
strain”.

σ e

σ = E e.

E=σ
e
Where, σ – Stress; e – Strain; E – Young’s Modulus
 Stress Strain Diagram
Ultimate
Strength

Yield Point
Breaking Limit
Elastic Limit

Proportional
STRESS/

Limit
LOAD

EXTENSION/STRAIN
 Stress Strain Diagram

•Point P: Proportional Limit: Within Proportional Limit stress is

directly proportional to strain. Hence the material will regain its
original shape after unloading.
The stress corresponding to the load is known as Limit of
Proportionality.
•Point E represents the elastic limit. In the region PE, the stress
is not proportional to strain. It means the stress strain diagram is
not a straight line.
•Any loading beyond point E, will cause permanent deformation.
The stress corresponding to the load at E is called at Elastic
Limit.
•Yield Stress (Point Y) :The loading beyond E causes extension
much larger than the extensions observed earlier. The material
yields to a greater extent and the stress corresponding to the load
at Y is termed as Yield Stress
•Beyond Y, a much smaller increase in the load causes
 Stress Strain Diagram

• At U, the material yields at a particular point and a

neck is formed there. The stress corresponding to
that load at U is called maximum stress (Ultimate
stress)
• Beyond U, the extension governed by the time of
loading. The load required to cause extension is
smaller than the load at M.
•The area of cross section is considerable reduced.
• The elongation continues till the material breaks at
B.
•The stress corresponding to the load at B is called
Breaking stress.
 Torsional shear stress

• When a machine member is subjected to the

action of two equal and opposite couples acting in
parallel planes, then the machine member is said to
be subjected to torsion.
• The stress set up by torsion is known as
torsional shear stress.
• Consider a shaft fixed at one end and subjected to a
torque (T) at the other end.
• As a result of this torque every cross-section of the
shaft is subjected to torsional shear stress.
 Continue…

T/J = τ/R = Cθ/l

θ= angle of twist, radian

T=Torque = twisting moment = turning moment, N-
mm
J= Polar movement of Inertia, mm4
τ= Torsional shear stress , N/mm2
C= Modulus of rigidity (or) shear modulus, N/mm 2
l= Length of the shaft, mm
 Continue…
Polar modulus zp:
T/J = τ/R
T = τ× J/R
J/R is called the polar modulus (zp)
T= τ. zp
For solid shaft of diameter (d)
J=πd4/32
R = d/2
Zp = J/R = πd 3
/16
T = τ× (πd3 /16) ---- N-mm
 Continue…
Torsional rigidity:
T/J =cθ/l
θ= T×l/c×J
The quantity c×J is called torsional rigidity
Power transmitted by shaft (p):
P = 2πNT/60 ---- Watts (or) N.m/s
T= torque-----N-m
N=speed------rpm
 Principal Stress
• Principal plane is a plane in which the shear
stress is zero, and the direct stresses acting
along these planes are known as principal
stress.
• When shear stress is also acting in addition we
have to find out maximum and minimum
principal stresses.
 Eccentric loading
• An external load, whose line of action is
parallel but does not coinside with the
centroidal axis of the machine component, is
known as an eccentric load (P).
• The distance between the centroidal axis of the
machine component and the eccentric load is
called eccentricity.
• It is generally denoted by e.
 Fatigue
Fatigue failure can occur at loads considerably lower
than tensile or yield strengths of material under a
static load.

Estimated to causes 90% of all failures of metallic

structures

Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little plastic

deformation) - even in normally ductile materials.
Thus sudden and catastrophic!
Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct stages: crack
initiation in the areas of stress concentration (near stress
raisers), incremental crack propagation, final
catastrophic failure. MSE-211-Engineering Materials 34
 Factors Affecting Fatigue Life
• Loading Conditions
– Type of stress
– Stress amplitude, mean value
• Condition of Specimen/Structural Member
– Stress concentrations
– Surface finish
• Material
– Thermal history (e.g. grain size in metals)
• Environmental conditions
– Temperature
– Corrosion effects
Loading Characteristics
 S — N curves

Fatigue limit (endurance limit) occurs for some materials

(e.g. some Fe and Ti alloys). In this case, the S—N curve
becomes horizontal at large N, limiting stress level. The
fatigue limit is a maximum stress amplitude below which the
material never fails, no matter how large the number of cycles
is.
For many steels,
fatigue limits
range between
35% and 60%
of the tensile
strength.

43
 S — N curves

In most non ferrous alloys(e.g., Aluminum,

Copper, Magnesium) S decreases continuously with
N. In this cases the fatigue properties are described
by

Fatigue strength: stress at which

fracture occurs after a
specified number of cycles
(e.g. 107)
Fatigue life: Number of cycles
to fail at a specified stress
level

44
• Fatigue properties :
• Fatigue life (N): it is total number of
cycles are required to bring about final
fracture in a specimen at a given
stress.
• Fatigue life for a given condition is a
property of the individual specimen
• and is arrived at after testing a number
of specimens at the same stress.
• Fatigue strength (σn)

• It is stress at which a material can

withstand repeatedly N number of
cycles before failure.

• OR it is the strength of a material for

a particular fatigue life.
• Fatigue limit or Endurance limit (σE):
• it is stress below which a material will
not fail for any number of cycles.
• For ferrous materials it is
approximately half of the ultimate
tensile strength.
• For non-ferrous metal since there is no
fatigue limit.
Factors affecting fatigue:

1) Effect of stress concentration

2) Size effect:
3) Surface Roughness:
4) Surface Residual Stress:
5) Effect of temperature:
6) Effect of metallurgical variables;
• Factors affecting fatigue:
• 1) EFFECT OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
• It is most responsible for the majority
of fatigue failures
• All m/c elements contain stress raisers
like fillets, key ways, screw threads,
porosity etc. fatigue cracks are
nucleated in the region of such
geometrical irregularities.
• The actual effectiveness of stress
concentration is measured by the fatigue
strength reduction factor Kf

Kf = σn / σnI

σn = the fatigue strength of a member

without any stress concentration

σnI = the fatigue strength of the same member

with the specified stress concentration.
• fatigue failure by stress concentration
can be minimized by
• reducing the avoidable stress-raisers
• careful design and
• the prevention of stress raisers by
careful machining and fabrication.
2) SIZE EFFECT:
The strength of large members is lower than
that of small specimens.
This may be due to two reasons.
The larger member will have a larger
distribution of weak points than the
smaller one and on an average, fails at a
lower stress.
Larger members have larger surface Ares.
This is important because the
imperfections that cause fatigue failure
are usually at the surface.
Effect of size:
Increasing the size (especially section
thickness) results in larger surface area
and creation of stresses.
This factor leads to increase in the
probability of crack initiation.
This factor must be kept in mind while
designing large sized components.
3) SURFACE ROUGHNESS:
• almost all fatigue cracks nucleate at the
surface of the members.
• The conditions of the surface roughness
and surface oxidation or corrosion are very
important.
• Experiments have shown that different
surface finishes of the same material will
show different fatigue strength.
• Methods which Improve the surface finish
and those which introduce compressive
stresses on the surface will improve the
fatigue strength.
• Smoothly polished specimens have higher
fatigue strength.
Surface treatments. Fatigue cracks initiate at
free surface, treatments can be
significant
Plating, thermal or mechanical means
to induce residual stress
• 4) SURFACE RESIDUAL STRESS:
• Residual stresses are nothing but locked up
stresses which are present in a part even
when it is not subjected to an external
force.

• Residual stresses arise during casting or

during cold working when the plastic
deformation would not be uniform
throughout the cross section of the part.
• Residual stresses can be either tensile
or compressive when plastically
deformed.

• Those residual stresses help in the

nucleation of cracks and their further
propagation.
5) EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE:

• Fatigue tests on metals carried out

at below room temperature shows
that fatigue strength increases
with decreasing temperature.

• F.S as Temperature
 Effect of Mean Stresses

sult
sa
sa sm>0
sm=0

Mean Stresses reduce the

No mean stress
stress range
Stress vs. Number of Cycles
• S-N Diagram

Lower mean stress

 Fatigue tests

1. Beam Fatigue 2. Tension- Compression

3. Others

M
Loading Patterns:
1. Reverse stresses, + to -
M 2. Alternate zero to some maximum
2c
3. Alternate above some base value
smax = Mc/I
 Stress concentration

Stress concentration:
 In most of the engineering components stress
distribution is not uniform, stress distribution will be
uniform only when there is no change in cross section.
 Irregularity of the stress distribution due to abrupt
changes of form is called stress concentration.
Stress raisers:
 Sudden changes in cross section and material
discontinuity is referred as stress raisers.
Ex: Holes, Notches, steps, threads, etc.
This fatigue limit represents the largest value of fluctuating stress that
will not cause failure for essentially an infinite number of cycles. For
many steels, fatigue limits range between 35% and 60% of the tensile
strength. Most nonferrous alloys (e.g., aluminum, copper, magnesium)
do not have a fatigue limit, in that the S–N curve continues its
downward trend at increasingly greater N values (Figure 4b)
Thus, fatigue will ultimately occur regardless of the
magnitude of the stress. For these materials, the fatigue
response is specified as fatigue strength, which is defined as
the stress level at which failure will occur for some specified
number of cycles (e.g., cycles). The determination of fatigue
strength is also demonstrated in Figure 4b. Another important
parameter that characterizes a material’s fatigue behavior is
fatigue life Nf It is the number of cycles to cause failure at a
specified stress level, as taken from the S–N plot (Figure 4b).
 Limitations of S-N approach
• Limited to uniaxial loading
• Cannot cope well with stress concentrations except
where these are duplicated exactly in the test
specimens
• Specimen surface condition must be identical to
finished part
• Miner’s rule for variable amplitude is non-
conservative and may be inaccurate
• Cannot predict crack growth from existing or assumed
flaws
 TYPES OF GEARS
1. According to the position of axes of the
shafts.
a. Parallel
1.Spur Gear
2.Helical Gear
3.Rack and Pinion
b. Intersecting
Bevel Gear
c. Non-intersecting and Non-parallel
worm and worm gears
 SPUR GEAR
• Teeth is parallel to axis
of rotation
• Transmit power from
one shaft to another
parallel shaft
• Used in Electric
screwdriver, oscillating
sprinkler, windup alarm
clock, washing machine
and clothes dryer
External and Internal spur Gear…
 Helical Gear
• The teeth on helical gears are cut at an angle
to the face of the gear
• This gradual engagement makes helical gears
operate much more smoothly and quietly than
spur gears
• One interesting thing about helical gears is
that if the angles of the gear teeth are correct,
they can be mounted on perpendicular shafts,
adjusting the rotation angle by 90 degrees
Helical Gear…
 Herringbone gears
• To avoid axial thrust, two
helical gears of opposite
hand can be mounted side
by side, to cancel resulting
thrust forces

• Herringbone gears are

mostly used on heavy
machinery.
 Rack and pinion
• Rack and pinion gears
are used to convert
rotation (From the
pinion) into linear
motion (of the rack)

• A perfect example of
this is the steering
system on many cars
 Bevel gears
• Bevel gears are useful when the direction of a
shaft's rotation needs to be changed
• They are usually mounted on shafts that are 90
degrees apart, but can be designed to work at other
angles as well
• The teeth on bevel gears can be straight, spiral or
hypoid
• locomotives, marine applications, automobiles,
printing presses, cooling towers, power plants, steel
plants, railway track inspection machines, etc.
Straight and Spiral Bevel Gears
 WORM AND WORM GEAR
• Worm gears are used when large gear reductions are
needed. It is common for worm gears to have
reductions of 20:1, and even up to 300:1 or greater
• Many worm gears have an interesting property that
no other gear set has: the worm can easily turn the
gear, but the gear cannot turn the worm
• Worm gears are used widely in material handling
and transportation machinery, machine tools,
automobiles etc
WORM AND WORM GEAR
NOMENCLATURE OF SPUR GEARS
 NOMENCLATURE….
• Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder
(cone, etc.) that the toothed gear may be considered to replace.
• Pitch circle: A right section of the pitch surface.
• Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in
a right section of the gear.
• Root (or dedendum) circle: The circle bounding the spaces
between the teeth, in a right section of the gear.
• Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and
the addendum circle.
• Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and
the root circle.
• Clearance: The difference between the dedendum of one gear
and the addendum of the mating gear.
 NOMENCLATURE….
• Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside
the pitch surface.
• Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the
pitch surface.
• Circular thickness (also called the tooth thickness): The
thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the
length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
• Tooth space: pitch diameter The distance between adjacent
teeth measured on the pitch circle.
• Backlash: The difference between the circle thickness of one
gear and the tooth space of the mating gear.
• Circular pitch (Pc) : The width of a tooth and a space,
measured on the pitch circle. D
Pc
N
 NOMENCLATURE….
• Diametral pitch (Pd): The number of teeth of a gear unit pitch
diameter. The diametral pitch is, by definition, the number of
teeth divided by the pitch diameter. That is,

Where Pd 
N
Pd = diametral pitch D

N = number of teeth
D = pitch diameter

• Module (m): Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The

pitch diameter is usually specified in inches or millimeters; in
the former case the module is the inverse of diametral pitch.
m = D/N
VELOCITY RATIO OF GEAR DRIVE

d = Diameter of the wheel

N =Speed of the wheel
ω = Angular speed

 2 N 2 d1
velocity ratio (n) =  
1 N 1 d 2
 Forces on Spur Gear Teeth
• Ft = Transmitted force
• Fn = Normal force.
• Fr = Resultant force
• θ = pressure angle
• Fn = Ft tan θ
• Fr = Ft/Cos θ

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 Forces on Spur Gear Teeth
Power, P; =

Torque,

Combining the above we can write:

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 Surface Speed
• Surface speed (Vm) is often referred to as
pitch-line speed:

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 Strength of Gear Teeth
• Lewis form factor method
Lewis equation

• Fs = Allowable dynamic bending force (lb)

• Sn = Allowable stress. Use endurance limit and account for the fillet as the
stress concentration factor
• b = Face width (in.)
• Y = Lewis form factor (From Table)
• Pd = Diametral pitch

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 Force Transmitted
• Transmitted load depends on the accuracy of
the gears.
• A dynamic load factor is added to take care of
this.
• Ft = Transmitted force
• Fd = Dynamic force
• Commercial

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 Classes of Gears
• Carefully cut

• Precision

• Hobbed or shaved

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 Design Methods
• • Strength of gear tooth should be greater
than the dynamic force; Fs ≥ Fd
• • You should also include the factor of safety,
Nsf.

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 Face width of Gears
• Relation between the width of gears and the
diametral pitch.

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 Buckingham Method of Gear Design

• It offers greater flexibility.

• Expected error is based on different-pitch
teeth.
• More conservative design.

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 Wear strength (Buckingham)

• Fw = tooth wear strength.

• Dp = diametral pitch of pinion.
• Dg = diametral pitch of gear.
• b = face width.
• Kg = load stress factor.
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