ARTHROLOGY

ARTHROLOGY

 Arthrology (arthron = joint, logos = study).

 Arthrology is the scientific study of joints.
 A joint is therefore a site where two or more bones and /or
cartilage come together whether or not there is visible movement.
 Joints are also referred to as articulations.
 Joints are regions in which bones are capped and surrounded by
connective tissues that hold the bones together and determine the
type and degree of movement between them.
 The structure of each joint determines its mobility and its stability.
 There is an inverse relationship between mobility and stability in
joints(articulations).
  The more mobile a joint is, the less stable it is. In contrast, if a
joint is immobile, it is correspondingly more stable.

Mobility

Most mobile Immobile

Intervertebral
Glenohumeral joint Hip joint Elbow joint Suture
joints
(Shoulder)

Most stable
Very unstable
Stability
CARTILAGE

 Cartilage is a non-vascular type of supporting connective tissue

that found throughout the body .
 It is a flexible connective tissue that differs from bone;
i)It is avascular and
ii)Microarchitecture is less organized than bone.
 The cells(chondrocytes) are scattered and lie firmly fixed in
matrix supported by collage and elastic fibers .
 Cartilage is not innervated, relies on diffusion to obtain nutrients.
 This causes it to heal slowly.
Cartilage structure

 Cartilage is a dense structure that resembles a firm gel, made up of

collagen and elastic fibers.
 It contains polysaccharide derivatives called chondroitin sulfates
which complex with protein in the ground forming proteoglycan.
 The matrix is produced by cells called chodroblasts which form
chondrocytes ,found in small chambers called lacuna.
 It is separated from the surrounding tissues by perichondrium which
consist of two layers:
a. Outer fibrous layer; which provide protection, mechanical support
and attaches the cartilage to other structures.
b. Inner cellular; is import in the growth and maintenance of cartilage.
TYPES OF CARTILAGE

i)Hyaline cartilage
It has a smooth surface and is the most common of the three types of
cartilage. It has matrix that contains closely packed collagen fibers,
making it tough but slightly flexible. It consists of bluish-white,
shiny ground elastic material whose matrix contains chondroitin
sulphate with many fine collagen fibrils and chondrocytes. The
chondrocytes are arranged in a small groups within cell nests and
the matrix is solid and smooth. Because of its smooth surfaces, it
allows tissues to slide more easily as well as providing flexibility
and support.
Cont..

Eg It is found in connection between ribs and sternum,

nasal cartilage and articular cartilage(which cover
opposing bone surfaces in many joints).
Note: In the embryo, bone begins as hyaline and later
ossifies.
Cont..

ii)Fibrous cartilage(fibrocartilage)
Is the toughest of the three types of cartilage. It consist of
dense masses of white collagen fibers in a matrix similar
to that of hyaline cartilage with the cells widely dispersed.
It has no perichondrium and has matrix that contains dense
bundles of collagen fibers embedded with the
chondrocytes making it durable and tough.This makes it
perfect to provide support and rigidity.
Cont..

e.g It is found in intervertebral discs, menisci, the callus, between

the pubic symphysis and at the junction where tends insert into the
bone.
iii)Elastic cartilage
It has a yellowish color surrounded by perichondrium. Chondrocytes
are located between a network of threadlike elastic fibers. The
abundance of elastic fibers makes it flexible and resilient. It
provides support and maintains shape of; pinna or lobe of the ear,
the epiglottis and blood vessel walls.
CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS

Joints can be classified according to

(a) Rigidity or degree of movement of the joint (Functional
classification).
(b) Type of tissue lying between the articulating components
(Structural classification).
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON THE DEGREE OF
MOVEMENT (FUNCTIONAL)

1. Immovable joint (Synarthroses): Two types

 The articulating bones are tightly connected by fibrous or
cartilaginous tissues e.g.
(i) Suture (in skull bones with fibrous tissues connecting the bones )
(ii) Synchondroses, which are temporary joints in the epiphyseal
plates of growing long bones
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2. Slightly movable joints (amphiarthroses)

 Allow limited degree of movements such as in twisting, compression

and stress. Two types fall under this classification
 e.g.
(i) Symphyses
A symphysis has a pad of fibrocartilage between the articulating
bones. The fibrocartilage resists compression and tension stresses and
acts as a resilient shock absorber.
(examples of symphyses: pubic symphysis and intervertebral
joints). 15
16
Slightly movable joints…

(ii) Syndesmoses, are fibrous joints in which articulating

bones are joined by long strands of dense regular
connective tissue only. The interosseous membrane
provides a pivot point where the radius and ulna (or the
tibia and fibula) can move against one another.
( e.g. the radio-ulnar joint in the forearm and the tibia-
fibular in the leg are separated by an interosseous
membrane)

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3. Freely movable joints
 Freely movable joints
(diarthroses) allow variable
degree of movements and
– The articulating surfaces are
covered by hyaline cartilage and
enclosed by a fibrous capsule.
– Most of these joints contain a
cavity with synovial fluid, which act
to reduce friction.

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 Organization of Synovial joints

 All types of synovial joints have several basic features: an articular

capsule, a joint cavity, synovial fluid, articular cartilage, ligaments, and nerves and
blood vessels.
 Ligaments contribute to the stability of synovial joints and lie outside the capsule.
 In special cases e.g. the knee joint some ligaments; the cruciate ligaments are
found within the capsule.
 Each synovial joint is composed of a double-layered capsule
called the articular capsule (or joint capsule ). The
outer layer is called the fibrous layer , while the inner layer is a
synovial membrane (or synovium ).
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Cont..
 The fibrous layer is formed from dense regular connective
tissue, and it strengthens the joint to prevent the bones from being
pulled apart.
 The synovial membrane is composed primarily of areolar
connective tissue, covers all the internal joint surfaces not
covered by cartilage, and lines the articular capsule.
 Only synovial joints house a joint cavity (or articular cavity ),a
space that contains a small amount of synovial fluid. The cavity
permits separation of the articulating bones. The articular
cartilage and synovial fluid within the joint cavity reduce friction
as bones move at a synovial joint.
Cont..
 Lining the joint cavity is the synovial membrane, which secretes
a viscous, oily synovial fluid . Synovial fluid is composed of
secretions from synovial membrane cells and a filtrate from blood
plasma
Synovial fluid has three functions
1.Synovial fluid lubricates the articular cartilage on the articulating
bones (in the same way that oil in a car engines lubricates the
moving engine parts).
2. Synovial fluid nourishes the articular cartilage’s chondrocytes.
The relatively small volume of synovial fluid must be circulated
continually to provide nutrients and remove wastes to these cells.
Whenever movement occurs at a synovial joint, the combined
compression and re-expansion of the articular cartilage circulate the
synovial fluid into and out of the cartilage matrix.
Cont..

3. Synovial fluid acts as a shock absorber, distributing stresses and

force evenly across the articular surfaces when the pressure in the
joint suddenly increases.
Cont..
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Cont..

 Types of Synovial joints

i). Plane Synovial joints – articulating surfaces are flat/almost flat. A
synovial joint has a fluid-filled, joint cavity that separates the
articulating surfaces of the bones. The articulating surfaces are
enclosed within a capsule, and the bones are also joined by various
ligaments. Bones slide over each other e.g. sternoclavicular,
acromioclavicular joints
ii). Hinge joints – articulating surfaces resemble a hinge therefore can
only move in one plane (around a single axis) e.g. Ankle, Elbow,
Knee joints
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Plane Synovial joints Hinge joints

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Cont..

Ellipsoid joints – The surfaces are elliptical convex fitting in an

iii).
elliptical concave surface
 Possible movements are flexion, extension, adduction and abduction only e.g. wrist joint

iv). Pivot joint – An incomplete ring surrounds a central pivot

 Only possible movement is rotation e.g atlanto-axial, superior radio-ulnar joint

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Ellipsoid joints Pivot joint

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v). Condyloid joints – 2 convex surfaces and 2
concave surfaces
Possible movements are flexion, extension,
adduction and abduction, plus a small rotation
occurs e.g. metacarpophalangeal joints
The temporomandibular joint is also an
example but movements are named differently

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 Synovial joints

vi). Saddle joints – Articulating surfaces are

concavoconvex reciprocally, resembling
the saddle of the horse
 Possible movements are flexion,
extension, addiction, abduction and
rotation e.g. carpometacarpal joints

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 Synovial joints

vii). Ball and socket joints – a rounded head

articulates with large rounded fossa like a
socket …Synovial joints
 Possible movements: flexion, extension,
adduction abduction, rotation and
circumduction e.g. shoulder, hip joints

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 Joint stability
 Joint stability depends on:
 Shape and size of articulating surfaces: e.g. a ball and socket
with too large a head fitting into a shallow socket is a cause for
instability as dislocation can easily occur.
 Ligaments around the joint: Fibrous ligaments are easily over
stretched during fatigue and may give way and collapse.
A good example are the ligaments of the arches of the foot, If
ligaments are elastic they can return to their normal shape
after over stretching

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Joint stability

 Toneof muscles surrounding the joint: This is the most important

factor in most joints.
 Muscles normally run between the articulating bones together holding
them in place e.g. Short muscles of the shoulder joint known as the
rotator cuff muscles
 Nervesupply to joints: The nerves that supply the muscles
surrounding the joint also supply the joint.

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 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON TYPE OF TISSUE
BETWEEN THE ARTICULATINGCOMPONENTS
(STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION)

3 types of joints fall under this classification

 Fibrous joints
 Cartilagenous joints
 Synovial joints

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Cont..

1.Fibrous joints
 The articulating bones are united by a fibrous connective
tissue and usually there is little or no movement. Examples
are
 Suture
 Syndesmoses
 Gonphoses, which is a special socket-like joint found between
teeth and the alveolar process.

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Cont..
i)Sutures
 Are immobile fibrous joints (synarthroses) that are found only between
certain bones of the skull.
 Sutures have distinct, interlocking, usually irregular edges that both
increase their strength and decrease the number of fractures at these
articulations.
 Sutures permit the skull to grow as the brain increases in size during
childhood. In an older adult, the dense regular connective tissue in the
suture becomes ossified, fusing the skull bones together.
 When the bones have completely fused across the suture line, these
obliterated suture become synostosis (fusion of two or more bones)
Cont..

ii)Syndesmoses
Are fibrous joints in which articulating bones are joined by long
strands of dense regular connective tissue only.
They are classified as amphiarthroses because they allow for slight
mobility.
E.g found between the radius and ulna and between the tibia and
fibula.
Cont..

iii) Gomphoses
The only gomphoses in the human body are the articulations of the
roots of individual teeth with the sockets of the mandible and the
maxillae. A tooth is held firmly in place by a fibrous periodontal
membrane .
This joint is functionally classified as a synarthrosis.
The reasons orthodontic braces can be painful and take a long
time to correctly position the teeth are related to the gomphosis
architecture.
2. Cartilagenous joints
 Primary cartilaginous joints:
 i) Epiphyseal plate of growing long bones
(temporary)
 ii) Costochondral joints (permanent)
 These joints are normally immovable
 Secondary cartilaginous joints (Symphyses)
 In these joints fibrocartilage lies between the
articulating components
 There is very limited degree of movement

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 Joint classification summary
Structural Structural Structural Category Example Functional
Classificatio Characteristics Classification
n
Fibrous Dense regular connective tissue Gomphosis: Periodontal Tooth to jaw Synarthrosis
holds together the membranes hold tooth to bony jaw (immobile)
ends of bones and bone parts; no
joint cavity Suture: Dense regular connective tissue Lambdoid suture (connects Synarthrosis
connects skull bones occipital and parietal bones) (immobile)
Syndesmosis: Dense regular Articulation between radius and Amphiarthrosi
connective tissue fibers (interosseous ulna, and between tibia and fibula s (slightly
membrane) between bones mobile)
Cartilaginou Pad of cartilage is wedged Synchondrosis: Hyaline cartilage plate Epiphyseal plates in growing Synarthrosis
s between the ends of bones; between bones bones; costochondral joints (immobile)
no joint cavity
Symphysis: Fibrocartilage Pubic symphysis;intervertebral Amphiarthrosis
pad between bones disc articulations (slightly mobile)
Synovial Ends of bones covered Uniaxial Plane joint: Flattened or Plane joint: Intercarpal joints Diarthrosis (freely
with articular cartilage;joint slightly curved faces slide across one intertarsal joints mobile)
cavity separates the articulating another Hinge joint: Elbow joint
bones; enclosed by an articular Hinge joint: Permits angular
capsule, lined by a synovial movements in a single plane Pivot joint: Atlantoaxial joint(C1
membrane; Pivot joint: Permits rotation & C2)
contains synovial fluid only
BiaxialCondylar joint: Oval articular Condylar joint: MP Diarthrosis
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surface on one bone closely interfaces (metacarpophalangeal) joints (freely mobile)
with a depressed oval surface on
another bone
References

1.Basic Histology 11th edition

2.McKinley2e Human Anatomy 2nd
edition
3.James H. Workman`s presentations.
4Physiopedia

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