Unit-9

Psychology & Sports

Since no one particular theory or approach covers the complete aspects of personality, the
approach for explaining ‘personality’ includes mainly, the ‘Type’ approach which consists
of classification or comprehending of personality type based on a set of behaviour
characteristics with similarities as done by Myers and Briggs type indicator, Friedman and
Rosenman Type A personality behaviour etc., as well as on the basis of body type
classification by Kretschmar, or somatotype by William Sheldon, and the fluid type
classification as explained by Hypocrites.

Trait approach, on the other hand, focusses on specific psychological attributes based on
the concept of individuals differing in ‘unique’ and ‘stable’ characteristics. Trait refers to a
characteristic that is unchanging and predictable.

Some traits are innate – the infant possesses a basis for developing the trait at birth, while
others are acquired through learning,
Some researchers like Eysenck, Cattel as well as Allport and Sigmund Freud and Neo-Freudians like Jung, who described
others support inherent traits as “cardinal” and proposed a the structure of personality in three part-id, ego, super ego,
theory of personality based on biological factors, arguing put forward the psycho-dynamic theory of personality that
that individuals inherit a type of nervous system that affects assumes there is an interaction between nature (innate
their ability to learn and adapt to the environment. instincts) and nurture (parental influences).

JUNG’S CLASSIFICATION OF PERSONALITY TYPES

Carl Gustav Jung, a Swiss psychiatrist and a disciple of Sigmund

Freud a great admirer of Freud’s view on psychoanalysis and
worked with him for five years. However, he started developing
contradictory views on some of the major assumptions or
findings of Sigmund Freud and later followed a separate
professional path. Therefore, many times, Carl Jung is referred
to as a Neo-Freudian also. He published a book Psychology
Typen (Psychology Types) in 1921 and presented his own
theory of personality by classifying personality based on two
important aspects
First is personality attitude (introvert and extrovert) and second is personality functions
(Sensing, Intuitive, Thinking, Feeling). He can be credited for being the first to introduce
the concept of introversion and extroversion to the world of psychology. It was not a
designed to label type of people, instead the purpose was to demonstrate the complexity
of human typology and its consequences. The four functions are divided into what Jung
called rational (or judging) and irrational (or perceiving) functions. Thinking and sensations
are rational, according to Jung, while intuition and feeling are irrational.

Introvert: In Jung’s theory, introverts are people who are Extrovert: In Jung’s theory people with an extrovert
predominantly interested in their own mental self. They are personality are the total opposite of those with an
typically seen as more reserved or reflective and prefer to be introvert personality. They prefer the outer world of
withdrawn from external reality. They opt to live in their own things, hence are found to be more broad-minded, are
inner world of feelings and thoughts and often take pleasure highly socialized, hence can meet unknown people
in solitary activities such as reading, writing, or meditating. easily. They are very bold, outgoing and optimistic
They prefer to create their own virtual and imagery world, person. Extroverts tend to enjoy human interactions
due to which they tend to shy away from in public and to be enthusiastic, talkative, assertive, and
interactions and social connects and are less vocal with gregarious. They take pleasure in activities that involve
people around them, due to this, they like to be reserved large social gatherings, such as parties, community
and within themselves. They are more analytical before activities, public demonstrations, and business or
speaking. political groups. They also tend to work well in groups.
Personality Functions: Whether a person is an introvert or extrovert, she/he has a
preferred pattern to deal with the situations. There can be four basic way or function
used by people:
1. Feeling: Feeling is a preference for making decisions based on values and effects on
people rather than logic. People use their emotional aspects to understand the
situation and deal according to it.
2. Thinking: The capacity to decide objectively based on the evidence and applicable
principles is defined as thinking. People evaluate the information received with
logic and rationale for dealing with outer world.
3. Sensing: Sensing refers to a preference for perceiving the world through facts,
evidence, data and details. People use their senses to seek information. They are
good at looking and listening to understand the world around them.
4. Intuitive: Intuition refers to a preference for perceiving the world through
concepts, theories and abstractions. People use their perception and intuitions to
understand the situation, people around them, sometime its referred as sixth sense
of an individual.

According to Jung, the two attitudes of extraversion and introversion cannot be

demonstrated in isolation. It need to be associated with one of the four functions.
When the two attitudes (Extrovert and Introvert) combine with four functions (Sensing,
Intuition, Thinking, Feeling), they form eight mental functions-in-attitude or personality
types.
Ambivert

While explaining personality through the term Introvert and Extrovert, there is
reference of a third term called Ambivert which is a relatively new term. Jung did
not use the word to explain that there is no such thing as a pure introvert or
extrovert. This concept was supported by many other later psychologists.
Ambiverts reflect a blend of traits from the introvert as well as the extrovert along
with having some specific strengths. Thus, an ambivert can be defined as
someone who falls in the middle of the introvert/extrovert continuum.
 Big Five Factor personality model

Offered by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae. The five personality

traits also known as the Five Factor Model of Personality and
sometimes referred as OCEAN. The five domains or traits
represented by the acronym OCEAN, are Openness,
Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and
Neuroticism

Openness to Experience (Imaginative vs Narrow CONSCIENTIOUSNESS (Organized vs Easy-going)

Interest): Openness refers to dimension of personality Conscientiousness refers to well-organised, careful,
which ranges from being imaginative, humorous, responsible, hardworking and dependable individuals at one
intellectual, creative, curious, having broad interests, end to being relaxed and easy going, spontaneous, disorganized
open to ideas at one end to being closed to experience, and careless. Numerous studies have found to have a positive
suspicious and rigid at the other. In sports, athletes or correlation between conscientiousness and cognition,
Individuals scoring high on Openness are characterized individuals high on conscientiousness have been found to
by reflection of demonstrating new ideas and skill perform better in academics as well as in the sports arena
execution initiatives along with wide variety in ideas. wherever planning, organising skills and decision-making
abilities are essential to the task.
EXTRAVERSION (Enthusiastic vs Reserved) Extraversion AGREABLENESS (Friendly vs Un-Cooperative) Agreeableness
refers to dimension of personality which ranges from refers to compassionate behaviour of an individual. Dimensions
having enthusiasm, energy, positive emotions, of agreeableness range from being good-natured, cooperative,
talkativeness, assertiveness at one end to being trusting at one end to being suspicious, irritable and
reserved, sober and cautious at the other. An uncooperative at the other. It is also a measure of a person’s
individual who scored high on extraversion is helpful and friendly behaviour nature and reflects whether that
characterized by high sociability, is outgoing and has a person is generally friendly and nurturing or not. People who
tendency to seek stimulation in the company of others. score low on agreeableness tend to be antagonistic towards
Those who score low on extraversion prefer solitude or others and are described as rude and unkind.
smaller groups, prefer activities alone, and avoid large
social situations. Not surprisingly people who score
high on both extraversion and openness are more
likely to participate in adventure and risky sports due
to their curious and excitement seeking nature.
NEUROTICISM (Composed vs Nervous) Neuroticism focusses on
the emotional stability on an individual. This trait refers to
dimensions of personality which range from being poised, calm
and composed at one end to nervous, anxious and excitable at
the other. Individuals reflecting high neuroticism are
characterized by the tendency to experience unpleasant
emotions, and are often found to demonstrate impulsive and
hostile behaviour. In contrast, people who score low in
neuroticism tend to be calm and even-tempered. Athletes’
sports performances are highly influenced by neurotic
characteristics and modern findings supports exercise and
physical activity as an alternate therapy to manage neurotic
behaviours.
The term ‘Motivation’ is derived from Latin word Movere meaning ‘to move’. The basic
reason for any human activity is nothing else but motivation. Motivation is the driving
force that spurs a person to action It can be explained as a process to initiate, guide
and maintain behaviour over time as defined by Robert Baron (2008). Motivation can
also be defined simply as the direction and intensity of effort. Truly, motivation is a
process of inspiring, guiding the organism to move in a particular direction.

Intrinsic Motivation: The word intrinsic is derived from the Extrinsic Motivation: The word extrinsic is derived from the
French word ‘intrinseque’ which means inward. Intrinsic is Latin word ‘entrinsecus’ which means outward. Just as its
also referred as internal motivation which drives an meaning suggests, extrinsic motivation is that in which the
individual from within to naturally pursue actions that source of satisfaction does not come from within and the
provide fun, pleasure, fulfilment or challenge. If an behaviour is not due to natural urges or impulses. Instead, the
individual’s behaviour reflects a desire to pursue an action behaviour or action is influenced by external forces or drives.
for enjoyment, or the individual continues the activity in a The reasons for action are not part of an individual’s character,
consistent manner because it provides a feeling of but are due to urges from outside such as prize, money, praise,
satisfaction, these can be identified as intrinsic motivation or even punishment.
factors towards the directed behaviour. Intrinsic motivation
includes satisfaction of needs felt by the individual which
comes from inside or within and is directly linked to the
individual’s instincts or urges.
Cognitive Approach: The active processing and interpretation of information
influences the persistent and purposive drive for action by an individual. It is based on
the notion that desired motivation can be achieved by an individual through active
processing and interpretation of information. Expectancy theory and Goal Setting
theory is widely used as a cognitive approach for motivation. Expectancy theory
explains that people are motivated for the task where the probability of success is
higher in comparison to failure. Whereas the goal setting concept maintains that a
stronger drive for actions and behaviour is fuelled by quality of information on time
set for task attainment along with task difficulty level and specificity of the task.

(a) Time Bound: The task should be time bound

(b) Set Complexity level of task: Task should be neither too difficult nor too easy
(c) Make task Specific: Task instructions should be precise about what is to be done
(d) Define Purpose of task: Outcome of the task should be clear and defined.
Pedagogical Approach: Teaching coaching pedagogies used in sports training for planned outcome is largely responsible in
guiding and maintaining the desired behaviour of athletes. Adequate communication and maintenance of positive relationship
during training is an essential component influencing the motivation of athletes towards a consistent action or behaviour. Making
training enjoyable, engaging athletes in decision making and providing valuable feedback to athletes are essential components to
motivation. Let us discuss few techniques of motivation using a pedagogical approach.

(a) Guided Discovery Method: Athletes are highly motivated if allowed to find solutions to the problems by themselves rather
than if they are just made to do things as per instruction. Lack of independence in decision making and non- promotion of
cohesive training environment for athletes are major reasons affecting motivation. Cooperative learning with opportunities
for athletes to engage in decision making is an effective strategy towards motivation.

(b) Valuable Feedback System: To persuade athletes to push harder for a longer period of time, they must be provided with a
strong support system. Assisting athletes with feedback which can provide them with specific direction to move in is an
effective means towards effective motivation.

(c) Fun-based Training: Training should be challenging and task-oriented for optimal performance. However, for providing
athletes with enough drive and energy to sustain them, training methods should involve fun and enjoyment for athletes.
Adding creativity and innovation to training and the teaching-learning system helps in adding motivation for athletes to
persist with continuous demands of training load.

(d) Individualized Training Program (ITP/IEP): All athletes are unique and respond differently to the vast variety of training
demands. Each athlete is a unique individual and should have a training programme designed for their abilities and
capabilities and which is within attainable limits of the athletes. Individualized training programmes or individualized
education programmes are very essential in sports to help athletes to set their own targets, challenges and difficulty levels
which will not only help them to avoid burnout, but also keep them motivated.
Social Support Strategy: Participation in sports and taking up exercise is greatly influenced by an understanding of the
social networking and perception of people around them. Conducive exercise environment, creating drive among
people to initiate and maintain sporting behaviour is deeply affected by the societal pressure or support provided to the
individual. Positive social support from peer group, family members, and friends helps in developing healthy habits and
enough drive to maintain the act of exercising. Initiating group activities and engagement of family and peers in sports
participation helps in increased participation in sports and exercise.

Facilitation Approach:

(a) Incentives and Rewards: Drive towards an action to maintain it for a long term may sometimes need external support.
Awards and rewards work effectively as a motivation force for athletes to pursue sports with consistency and continuity.

(b) Valance of Reward: Many time prizes and awards are used extrinsic sources of motivation to maintain a desired action or
behaviour. But, at times, even these may prove to be ineffective. It is essential to understand that external factors like prize
money or medals do motivate athletes, but the most important aspect is to understand the need and expectation of the
individual athlete, this is known as ‘valance’ of the reward or valuing the award. To be motivated, athletes must be
awarded by considering what is desired or expected by an individual so that he or she can value that reward. An athlete
may like to be rewarded by being made the captain of the team and may value it more than being rewarded with a pay
hike.
(c) Performance appraisals: Motivation or the driving force for any desired behaviour
to last over a long period of time may need support of being recognised and praised
for the current and past endeavours. It creates the drive for future action and pursuit
of excellence with confidence among athletes. It encourages them to plan their
directions and actions. Regular appraisal of performance should be provided to
athletes and appropriate rewards given.

(d) Quality Support and Facilitation: Motivation for an action is influenced by the
amount of facilitation made available for athletes, but the impact is larger only if the
quality of support is of a high standard. Factors influencing or impacting the desired
behaviour of athletes need to studied, diagnosed and appropriate support needs to
be provided to ensure maintenance of behaviour of highest standards.
According to the American Psychological Association, aggression is a type of behaviour aimed at causing
physical or psychological harm to another. Most psychologist refer to aggression as any behaviour
intended to harm or injure any living being who is trying to avoid it. This definition includes three
important features. First, aggression is a behaviour that can be seen. It is not an emotion that occurs
inside a person such as anger. Second, aggression is intentional. Aggression is not accidental. It is a
deliberate behaviour to harm or injure and can be either physical or psychological, ie., hitting, pushing or
abusing someone purposely, with an intent to hurt. Third, the victim wants to avoid the harm.

TYPES OF AGGRESSION

Hostile Aggression: The term ‘hostile’ refers to being ‘opposed’, Hostile aggression is a type of aggression that is
therefore hostile aggression refers to violent and angry committed in response to a perceived threat or insult.
behaviour where the intent and primary goal is to harm the It is unplanned, reactionary, impulsive, and fuelled by
other. A boxer who punches the opponent below the belt with intense emotion as opposed to desire to achieve a
the primary aim of injuring him because he is losing or an goal. Aggressors typically have a sense of a loss of
athlete who uses abusive words to mentally harm another control during outbursts, and characteristically
player who has angered him with better skills are examples of experience physiological hyperarousal. Thus, it is also
hostile aggression. sometimes known as reactive aggression.
Instrumental Aggression: The term ‘instrumental’ refers to ‘serve as a means’ ie., aggression is being
used just as an instrument to gain advantage or win and not because of anger or enmity. Therefore,
instrumental aggression refers to aggressive behaviour meant or used to attain some non-aggressive
goals like winning, getting money, prestige or gaining any other advantage. Instrumental aggression is
harmful behaviour engaged in without provocation to obtain an outcome or coerce others. An
instrumental aggression does consist of an aggressive intent to harm an opponent physically or
psychologically without necessarily being angry. Instrumental aggression is a behaviour directed at the
target as a means to an end.

For example, elbowing and injuring a player to gain a competitive advantage, or late tackling to stop an
opponent from scoring a goal.