4.

1 General Properties of
Aqueous Solutions
A solution is a homogenous mixture of 2 or more
substances

The solute is the substance present in the smaller

amount.

The solvent is the substance present in the larger

amount

4.1
 Electrolyte
An electrolyte is a substance that, when dissolved in
water, results in a solution that contains ions and
conducts electricity.
A nonelectrolyte is a substance that does not form
ions in solution and does not conduct electricity.

4.1
• Why does the solution of table salt (NaCl)
conduct electricity but the solution of table sugar
(C12H22O11)cannot?
• Does solid table salt conduct electricity?
• In the dissolving process how are the ions in
NaCl separated?

4.1
Ionic compounds tend to be electrolytes.
Cations (+) and Anions (-)
H 2O
NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

4.1
 

Dissociation

H2O Water is a polar molecule.

• When an ionic
substance dissolves in
water, the polar water
molecule pulls the
individual ions from the
crystal and solvates
them.
• This process is called
dissociation.
4.1
Solvation is the process in which an ion is surrounded
by water molecules arranged in a specific manner.

Note: The different orientations of water molecules

around sodium and chloride ions.
4.1
Ions dissociate stoichiometrically

Na2SO4  2Na+(aq) + SO4(aq)2-

(NH4)2SO4  2NH4(aq)+ + SO4(aq)2-

Ca(NO3)2(aq)  Ca2+(aq) + 2NO3(aq)-

4.1
 Molecular compounds tend to be nonelectrolytes except
for acids and bases.
No cations (+) and anions (-) in solution
H 2O
C12H22O11 (s) C12H22O11 (aq)

Nonelectrolytes dissolve
only as molecules

4.1
 Strong and Weak Electrolytes
• A strong electrolyte dissociates to ions completely or nearly
completely in solution

– good conductors.

– All water soluble ionic compounds are strong electrolytes.

H 2O
NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

– Some molecular compounds are strong electrolytes

• HCl(aq) + H2O  H3O(aq)+ + Cl(aq)-

4.1
A weak electrolyte dissociates partially.

- The solutes exist in solution mostly in the form of

molecules with only a fraction in the form of ions.

- weak conductors.

CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

Mostly molecules Few ions

4.1
 Chemical equilibrium
CH3COOH CH3COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

The double arrow means a reversible reaction.

The reaction can occur in both directions.

There is a balance between the two opposing

processes.

4.1
 4.2 Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation reactions occur when pairs of oppositely
charged ions attract each other so strongly that they form
an insoluble ionic solid.

Eg: Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq)  PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Ions in mixed solutions: Pb2+ NO3- K+ I-

Ions that attract to form precipitate: Pb2+ + 2I-  PbI2(s)
Ions that remain unreacted: NO3- K+

4.2
Solubility Guidelines

4.2
Class Work
Classify these ionic compounds as soluble or
insoluble in water:
(a)sodium carbonate,
(b) lead (II) sulfate,
(c) cobalt(II) hydroxide,
(d) barium nitrate,
(e) ammonium phosphate.

4.2
 Exchange (metathesis) Reactions
AX+BY BX +AY

Precipitation reaction conform to this pattern.

Eg:
(a)Write the balanced chemical equation for the reaction
when aqueous solutions of BaCl2 and K2SO4 are mixed.

(b) Predict the identity of the precipitate that forms.

4.2
 ionic equation
For a reaction occurs in the aqueous solution, there might be
only a part of the ions which participate in the reaction. The ions
which do not participate in the reaction are called spectator
ions.
eg:
Molecular equation:
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI(aq)  PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Complete ionic equations (write ions from strong electrolyte):

Pb2+ + 2NO3- +2K+ +2I-  PbI2(s) +2K+ + 2NO3-

Net ionic equations (only show particles involved in reaction):

Pb2+ +2I-  PbI2(s)
Spectator ions (unreacted): K+ ; NO3- 4.2
4.2
 Steps for writing net ionic equation:
1. Write the molecular equation
2. Separate the strong electrolytes to ions
3. Weak electrolytes, nonelectrolytes or insoluble salts
cannot be separated.
4. Cancel out the spectator ions

4.2
Class work:
(a)Write the net ionic equation for the precipitation reaction
that occurs when aqueous solutions of calcium chloride and
sodium carbonate are mixed.

(b)Write the net ionic equation for the precipitation reaction

that occurs when aqueous solutions of silver nitrate and
potassium phosphate are mixed.

4.2
4.3 Acids, Bases, And Neutralization
Reactions
Definition of acid and base
• An acid is a substance that dissociates in
water to produce hydrogen ions (H+)
Common acids:
HCl H+ + Cl-

HNO3 H+ + NO3-
Each acid donates H+ and it’s
H2SO4 H+ + HSO4- characteristic anion.
HSO4- H+ + SO42-

4.3
HCl, HNO3, HC2H3O2 are monoprotic acids;
H2SO4, H2CO3 are diprotic acids;
H3PO4 are triprotic acids.

eg: when HCl dissolves in water, HCl molecule actually

transfers an H+ ion to a water molecule.
HCl (g) + H2O (l) Cl- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

• We use H+ for
simplicity, but H3O+ is
more accurate.

4.3
The H+ ion in water
H H+ + e-

H+ ion is simply a proton

+ with no surrounding valence
electron!
proton

In water solution of acid, H+ will be strongly attracted to water

molecule.
H+ + H2O H 3 O+ +
H H
·· + O
··
H+ + :O H O
H
H H

H H Hydronium ion
4.3
• A base is a substance that dissociates in water to
produce OH- ions or accepts H+ ions.

Common bases:
NaOH Na+ + OH- Each base produces OH- and
KOH K+ + OH- it’s characteristic cation.

Ammonia is a base because it is able to accept a H+ ion from

water molecule, producing OH-

NH3 (g) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

4.3
4.3
Strong and Weak Acids and Bases

4.3
 Strong Acid and Base
 A strong acid or base is one that completely
dissociates in water.
Strong acids:
HI, HBr, HCl, HClO4, HClO3, H2SO4, HNO3
Eg. HCl  H+ + Cl-
<1% >99%
Ex: In 6M HCl solution, 0.004% exist as molecules

 Strong bases (soluble hydroxides):

LiOH, NaOH, KOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2,
and Ba(OH)2
4.3
 Weak acids/bases
 Weak acids partially dissociate into ions in aqueous
solution
HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ A¯(aq) + H3O+(aq)
or HA(aq) ⇌ A¯(aq) + H (aq)
+

Eg. ethanoic acid CH COOH(aq) ⇌ CH COO¯(aq) + H (aq)

3 3
+

4.3
 Weak bases partially dissociate into ions in
aqueous solution

Eg. NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH¯(aq)

⇌ Note the arrow indicates partial dissociation, and an

equilibrium exists between reactants and products.

4.3
Eg:
The following diagrams represent aqueous solutions of acids
HX, HY, and HZ, with water molecules omitted for clarity.
Rank the acids from strongest to weakest.

HY > HZ> HX

4.3
Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes

4.3
 Neutralization reaction
Acid-base neutralization reaction is an exchange
reaction in which always produces salt and water.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

base acid salt water

KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

base acid salt water

Net ionic equation: OH- and H+ neutralize each other,

OH-(aq) + H+(aq) H2O(l) so the properties of acid and the
base are destroyed.

Salt is an ionic compound formed from the cation of the base

and the anion of the acid. eg: MgSO4, Na3PO4, KI, CaCl2
4.3
Eg: Write both chemical equation and net ionic equation of the neutralization
reaction between hydrochloric acid and the water-insoluble base Mg(OH) 2.

Molecular equation: Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2 + 2H2O

Net ionic equation: Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq)+2H2O(l)

4.3
Class work:
Write both molecular and net ionic equation of each
of the following neutralization reaction.

1.Sulfuric acid and aqueous potassium hydroxide.

2. Hydrochloric acid and insoluble copper (II) hydroxide.

3. Phosphoric acid and aqueous calcium hydroxide.

4.3
Exchange Reaction with Gas Formation
Some exchange reactions produce gas : CO2, SO2, H2S, NH3,…

E.g.:
1.Hydroiodic acid reacts with an aqueous solution of lithium
sulfide, hydrogen sulfide gas is produced.

Molecular equation: Li2S(aq) + 2HCl  2LiCl(aq) + H2S(g)

Net ionic equation: S2- (aq) + 2H+ (aq)  H2S(g)

4.3
2. Reaction between baking soda and hydrochloric acid.
Molecular equation:
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2CO3(aq)
Carbonic acid is unstable, therefore,
H2CO3  H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Overall reaction:
NaHCO3(aq) + HCl(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Net ionic equation:

H+(aq) + HCO3-(aq)  H2O(l) + CO2(g)

4.3
4.4 Single replacement Reactions
 Displacement reactions
General Pattern:

A+BX  AX+B

Eg: Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq)  Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

These reactions are called displacement reactions.

4.4
 The Activity Series
The activity Series can be used to predict if a certain metal
can be replaced by H+ in an acid or by another metal ion in
a particular salt.

4.4
1. A metal will displace any element that occurs
below it in the activity series.
eg: Fe + Cu2+ → Fe2+ + Cu
Cu + Fe2+ → no reaction

2. A metal above hydrogen in the activity series

will displace hydrogen in acids.

eg: Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2

Ag + HCl → no reaction

4.4
Typical Reactivity of Halogens
3. More reactive nonmetal can replace less reactive
nonmetal ions in its solution.

eg: Cl2 + 2NaBr → 2NaCl + Br2

I2 + NaCl → no reaction

Most
reactive F
nonmetal
Cl
Br
Least
reactive I
nonmetal

4.4
Class Work
Predict if the following single replacement reactions will occur
or not.
Fe+CuSO4 → FeSO4 +Cu
Cu + H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2
Cl2 + KBr → KCl + Br2
2Ag+CuSO4 → Ag2SO4 +Cu
Zn + H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
Cl2 + KF → KCl + F2

4.4