Module 3

Reactive Chemistry
 Chemical Reactions

Inquiry question: What are the products of a chemical reaction?

• Investigate a variety of reactions to identify possible indicators of a chemical
change

• Use modelling to demonstrate

- the rearrangement of atoms to form new substances
- the conservation of atoms in a chemical reaction
Reaction Observations Sign of Chemical
Change
Iron(III) Chloride
+ Ammonium
Thiocyanate

Sulfuric Acid +
Copper Carbonate

Calcium Chloride
+ Sodium Sulfate
 Signs of a chemical change

Production of gas Rise in temperature

Marble chips added to dilute HCl. Neutralisation of sodium hydroxide
with hydrochloric acid.
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
 Signs of a chemical change
Disappearance of a solid Colour change
Magnesium added to dilute H2SO4 Displacement of copper with iron.

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g) Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

Blue Green
 Signs of a chemical change

Production of visible light Production of sound

Combustion of magnesium Igniting hydrogen gas in oxygen

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s) 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(g)

 Signs of a chemical change
Formation of a precipitate Production of new odour
Reaction of lead nitrate and sodium Hydrogen sulfide production to give a
iodide to give a lead iodide insoluble rotten egg smell.
solid.
Na2S(s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2S(g)
Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2NaI(aq) → PbI2(s) +
2NaNO3(aq)
 Chemical reaction
• A chemical reaction involves
1) breaking chemical bonds of reactants to give
individual atoms
2) rearrangement of atoms
3) formation of new chemical bonds to give products
• A chemical reaction must obey the Law of Conservation of
Mass, so that the number of atoms of each element is the
same before and after the reaction (balancing an
equation).
 PhET – Reactants, Products and
Leftovers
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/reactants-products-and-l
eftovers/latest/reactants-products-and-leftovers_all.html

1. Skip straight to “Molecules” and complete water,

ammonia and methane.
2. Attempt the “Game”. There are three games.
 Chemical Reactions
Inquiry question: What are the products of a chemical reaction?
• conduct investigations to predict and identify the products of a range of
reactions, for example:
– synthesis
– decomposition
– combustion
– precipitation
– acid/base reactions
– acid/carbonate reactions

• Construct balanced equations to represent chemical reactions

 Types of chemical reactions
• Synthesis
• Decomposition
• Combustion
• Precipitation
• Acid-base
• Acid-carbonate
 Synthesis
• Two or more substances
combine to form one new
substance
Examples
2Mg(s) + O2 (s) → 2MgO (s)
Fe(s) + S(s) → FeS(s)
2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
Patterns in synthesis reactions

Type Description
Non-metals Most reactive non-metals (F, Cl, O) and reactive non-
with metal metals (S, Br, I) react with most metals to form
single ionic compounds.
Non-metals Non metal halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) react with hydrogen
with non- to form hydrogen halides.
metals Cl reacts with O, S, P and Si to form chlorides.
O reacts with S, P, C and Si to form oxides.
Decompositio
n
• One substance
breaks up into two
or more substances.
• Often requires
energy source to
begin (heat –
thermal
decomposition,
electricity or light).
 Types of decomposition
Type Description
Thermal Hydroxides, most carbonates and nitrates decompose on exposure
to heat.
CaCO3 (s) → CaO (s) + CO2 (g)
Electrolysis Current passed through molten substance or solution.
CuBr2 (aq) → Cu(s) + Br2 (g)

Light 2AgCl(s) → 2Ag(s) + Cl2 (g)

Applied in photochromic sunglasses (transition lenses); in sunlight
silver chloride decomposes into black solid silver, with production
of chlorine gas that escapes into the air.
 Predicting
thermal
decompositi
on products
 Combustion
• Combustion is the reaction between elements or compounds with oxygen in
air by burning.
Combustion with Complete combustion with Incomplete combustion
metals hydrocarbon (Sufficient with hydrocarbon (lack of
levels of oxygen) oxygen)

2C3H8(g) + 7O2(g) → 6CO(g) +

2Mg(s) + O2 (g) → C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 8H2O(g)
2MgO(s) 4H2O(g)
C3H8(g) + 2O2(g) → 3C(s) +
4H2O(g)
 Examples
Write a balanced equation for reactions between these pairs of
elements.
1) Zinc and chlorine
2) Aluminium and fluorine
3) Phosphorus and chlorine
Write equations for the thermal decomposition of –
4) Zinc carbonate
5) Iron (III) hydroxide
 Solutions
First Set
1) Zn(s) + Cl2(g) → ZnCl2
2) 2Al(s) + 3F2 (g) → 2AlF3
3) 2P + 3Cl2 → 2PCl3

Second Set
1) ZnCO3 → ZnO + CO2
2) 2Fe(OH)3 → Fe2O3 + 3H2O
Precipitatio
n Reaction
• When a solid
(precipitate)
forms upon
reaction between
two aqueous
solutions, a
precipitation
reaction has
occurred.
Aqueous
solutions
 • Precipitation involves mixing two ionic compounds in
solution. The mixture will contain four ions moving randomly
amongst water molecules.
• Mixing sodium chloride and copper sulfate together gives a
solution of Na+, Cu2+, Cl- and SO42- ions. However, all four
ions remain separated from each other in the solution. This is

Exampl
NOT a precipitation reaction.
• Mixing silver nitrate and potassium chloride gives an
insoluble compound, silver chloride (precipitate) leaving only
es K+ and NO3- ions freely moving in solution. This is a
precipitation reaction.
Solubility
Table
 Try these!
Write out the complete formula for the possible
precipitation reactions between the following pairs of
substances. Identify the precipitate, if any.
1) Potassium carbonate and silver nitrate
2) Sodium sulfate and lead nitrate
3) Potassium hydroxide and barium chloride
 Solutions
1) Silver carbonate is a precipitate.
K2CO3 (aq) + 2AgNO3 (aq) → Ag2CO3 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
2) Lead sulfate is a precipitate
Na2SO4 (aq) + Pb(NO3)2 (aq) → 2NaNO3 (aq) + PbSO4 (s)
3) There is no precipitate. This is NOT a precipitation
reaction.
2KOH(aq) + BaCl2 (aq) → Ba(OH)2 (aq) + 2KCl(aq)
 Acid-base reaction
• Acids produce H+ ions in solution. The H+ ions attach to
water molecules and are called hydronium ions, H3O+
• Common bases contain hydroxide, OH-, or oxide, O2-, ions
in solution. Examples include – NaOH, MgO, Cu(OH)2
• Bases that are soluble in water are alkalis, for example,
NaOH is an alkali but MgO is not because it is insoluble.
Common
acids and
bases
Reaction Observations Balanced Equation

Magnesium
& Hydrochloric
acid

Hydrogen peroxide
& Manganese
dioxide

Copper carbonate
 Neutralisation (Acid-Base
reaction)
Acid + Base → Salt + Water
The salt is an ionic compound made up of the positive ion, or cation, of the base
and the negative ion, or anion, of the acid. Water is produced when strong
bases are used but there are exceptions where weak bases will not yield water.

Type Example
Hydroxide base HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Oxide base 6HNO3 (aq) + Fe2O3 (s) → 2Fe(NO3)3 (aq) + 3H2O (l)
 Writing ionic equations

Type Example

Complete CuCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2 (s) + 2NaCl(aq)

formula/neutral
species equation
Complete ionic Cu2+ + 2Cl- + 2Na+ + 2OH- → Cu(OH)2 (s) + 2Na+ + 2Cl-
equation
(states not
required)
Net ionic equation Cu2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) → Cu(OH)2 (s)
(only ions involved
in formation of new (Cl- and Na+ are spectator ions and are NOT shown)
substance shown)
 Neutralisation

Type Example

Complete Ca(OH)2 (aq) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)

formula/neutral
species equation
Complete ionic Ca2+ + 2OH- + 2H+ + 2NO3- → 2H2O + Ca2+ + 2NO3-
equation
Net ionic equation H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(l)
(only ions involved (Ca2+ and NO3- are spectator ions and are NOT shown)
in formation of new
substance shown)
 Acid-carbonate reaction
Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide
The salt is an ionic compound made up of the cation of carbonate and the anion of the acid.

Type Example
Complete K2CO3 (s) + 2HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
formula/neutral species
equation
Complete ionic 2K+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → 2K+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) +
equation CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Net ionic equation CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
 Acid-carbonate reaction

Type Example
Complete formula/neutral Ag2CO3 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → 2AgNO3 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
species equation
Complete ionic 2Ag+(aq) + CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2NO3(aq) → 2Ag+(aq) + 2NO32-(aq) +
CO2(g) + H2O(l)
Net ionic equation CO32-(aq) + 2H+(aq) → CO2 (g) + H2O(l)
 Ancient chemistry
Cycad palm fruit, found in northern Australia, is toxic unless treated. Below are three
methods indigenous Australians used to detoxify this fruit for safe consumption.

1. Fruit is cut up into 1. Fruit is cut up into 1. Fruit is allowed to

pieces. pieces. sit in water for the
2. Soaked in running 2. Heated to fermentation reaction
water for up to 5 decompose toxins. to occur and destroy
days to leach out 3. Soaked in running toxins.
toxins. The toxins water in much
dissolve in running shorter time for
water. leaching.
 Predicting Reactions of Metals
Inquiry Question: How is the reactivity of various metals predicted?
• Conduct practical investigations to compare the reactivity of a variety of
metals in:
- water
- dilute acid
- oxygen
- other metals ions in solution

• Construct a metal activity series using the data obtained from practical
investigations and compare this series with that obtained from standard
secondary-sourced information.
 Metal reaction with Oxygen
Reaction Example
Rapid reaction (Li, Na, K, 4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s) (white solid)
Ca, Ba) 2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s) (white solid)

Slow reaction but vigorous 2Mg(s) + O2(s) → 2MgO(s) (white solid)

with heat (Mg, Al, Fe, Zn) 4Fe(s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3 (s) (red solid)
Very slow and requires heat 2Cu(s) + O2(g) → 2CuO (black solid)
to begin
(Sn, Pb, Cu)
In general,
Metal + oxygen → metal oxide
 Metal reaction with water
Reaction Example
Vigorous reaction at room 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2 (g)
temperature (Li, Na, K, Ca, Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (s) + H2 (g)
Ba)
Reaction with steam only Mg(s) + H2O(l) → MgO(s) + H2 (g) (oxide is produced
(Mg, Al, Fe, Zn) with steam)
No reaction
(Sn, Pb, Cu, Ag, Pt, Au)
In general,
Metal + water → metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
 Metal reaction with acid
Reaction Example
Most metals Complete formula/neutral species equation
except for a Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2 (aq) +H2 (g)
few (Cu, Ag,
Au, Pt) will Net ionic equation
react with Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2 (g)
dilute acid
In general,
Metal + acid → metal salt + hydrogen gas
 Displacement reaction
Type Example
Complete Zn(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
formula/neutral
species equation
Net ionic equation Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Cu(s) + Zn2+ (aq)
Zinc atoms donate two
electrons to copper atoms,
turning copper into a neutral
atom and bringing it out of
solution as solid copper.
 Displacement reaction
Type Example
Complete Cu(s) + 2AgNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + 2Ag(s)
formula/neutral
species equation
Net ionic equation Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → 2Ag(s) + Cu2+(aq)

Copper donates
electrons to silver,
taking it out of solution.
 Activity Series of Metals
K > Na > Li > Ba > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Sn > Pb > H > Cu > Ag > Pt >
Au
MOST REACTIVE --------------->----------------------->-------------------- LEAST REACTIVE

The more reactive metal will displace and take out of solution the ions of the less
reactive metal. Acid-metal reactions are displacement reactions in which the
metal displaces H2 from the acid solution containing H + ions.
Mg(s) + Pb2+(aq) → Pb(s) + Mg2+(aq) (Metal-metal displacement)
Mg(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2 (g) (Acid-metal displacement)
Summary
 Reactivity and the Periodic Table
Characteris Trend
tic
Ionisation The lower the ionisation energy, the easier the atom can lose
energy electrons by reacting with water, acid, oxygen or the ion of
another metal. Exceptions include Mg and Zn.

K > Na > Li > Ba > Ca > Mg > Al > Zn > Fe > Sn > Pb > H > Cu > Ag > Pt > Au
MOST REACTIVE --------------->----------------------->-------------------- LEAST
REACTIVE
Reactivity and the Periodic Table

Characteristic Trend
Atomic radius Large atomic radii gives weaker electrostatic attraction
between the nucleus and the valence electrons that are
donated in a chemical reaction of metals with water, acid,
oxygen or the cation of another metal. Hence, a larger atomic
radius generally means a higher reactivity.
Electronegativi Electronegativity is a measure of the element to attract
ty electrons, which is the opposite to the reactivity of metals.
Hence, electronegativity and reactivity have an inverse
relationship. A more electronegative metal is also less reactive.
 Oxidation and Reduction
We can view a metal reacting with oxygen, an acid or
displacement of another metal as an electron transfer reaction
where there is
• A loss of electrons by the metal, or oxidation, and
• A gain of electrons, or reduction, by the oxygen, hydrogen
(acid) or less reactive metal ion.
• OILRIG – Oxidation Is Loss. Reduction Is Gain.
• Such reactions are called redox reactions (reduction-oxidation).
 Example
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2 (g)
(Net ionic equation of zinc with any acid)

• Zn has been oxidised after donating two electrons.

• 2H+ has been reduced after gaining two electrons.
Oxidation half equation Reduction half equation
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e- 2H+ + 2e- → H2
 Combining half equations
Oxidation half equation Reduction half equation
Al → Al3+ + 3e- 2H+ + 2e- → H2

To reach the net ionic equation, we must balance the number of electrons in each
half equation. The number of electrons donated must equal the number gained.

Oxidation half equation Reduction half equation

2Al → 2Al3+ + 6e- 6H+ + 6e- → 3H2

2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2 (g)

(Net ionic equation)
Redox reactions with water
Oxidation half equation Reduction half equation
Li → Li+ + e- 2H2O + 2e- → H2 + 2OH-

2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH(aq) + H2 (g)

(Net ionic equation)
 Oxidant and Reductant
Term Definition
Oxidant/oxidising “Causes” the oxidation of another substance. It is
agent reduced itself.
Reductant/reducing “Causes” the reduction of another substance. It is
agent oxidised itself.
Zn(s) + Cu
2+
(aq) → Cu(s) + Zn
2+
(aq)

Looking at the reactants ONLY,

• Cu2+ ions takes electrons from Zn. Hence, Cu2+ is the oxidant/oxidising agent. It is
itself reduced to Cu.
• Zn donates electrons to Cu2+. Hence, Zn is the reductant/reducing agent. It is itself
oxidised.
 Experiment: Metals with acid
Add 5 mL of acid to each sample of metal in a test tube. Record the temperature change with a thermomet
Ensure the mass of each sample is approximately the same and sand each sample to clean its surface.

Metal Observation Initial Temp. Final Temp. Change in

(˚C) (˚C) Temp (˚C)
Ca
Mg
Zn
Cu
 Experiment: Metals with oxygen
Hold each piece of metal in a Bunsen burner flame using tongs. Observe the intensity of the reaction.
Make sure to sand the metal surfaces first.

Metal Observation Rank

Cu
Mg
 Experiment: Displacement
d 2 drops of each solution to the metals listed in test tubes. Try to place the four metals in order of reacti

Metal ZnNO3 CuNO3 MgNO3 FeNO3 NaNO3 AgNO3

Zn

Mg

Cu

Ca
 Problems
1) Write an equation for the reaction of calcium with water.
2) When a clean iron wire is dipped into a blue copper sulfate solution, a brown deposit forms on the wire
and the solution loses it blue colour. Write an equation for this reaction.
3) Use the activity series to determine if a reaction takes place in each combination. Write the neutral
species AND net ionic equation IF a reaction takes place.
(i) Aluminium and lead nitrate solution.
(ii) Silver and zinc nitrate solution.
4) Write oxidation and reduction half reactions between aluminium and hydrochloric acid. Identify the
species that has oxidised and the species that has been reduced.
5) Write oxidation and reduction half reactions between lead and copper sulfate.
6) Identify the oxidant in the following reaction.
Cl2 (aq) + HNO2 (aq) → HNO3 (aq) + 2Cl- (aq)
7) Identify the reductant in the following reaction.
Fe(s) + 2H+(aq) → Fe2+ (aq) + H2 (g)
 Solutions
1) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (s) + H2 (g)
2) Fe(II)(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu(s)
3) (i) 2Al(s) + 3Pb(NO3)2 (aq) → 2Al(NO3)3 (aq) + 3Pb(s)
2Al(s) + 3Pb2+(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3Pb(s)
(ii) No displacement reaction occurs because zinc is more reactive than silver.
4) 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3 (aq) + 3H2 (g)
Oxidation half-equation (Aluminium has been oxidised):
2Al(s) → 2Al3+(aq) + 6e-
Reduction half-equation (Hydrogen ions have been reduced):
6H+(aq) + 6e- → 3H2
 Solutions
5) Pb(s) + CuSO4 (aq) → PbSO4 (s) + Cu(s)
Oxidation half-equation:
Pb(s) → Pb2+(aq) + 2e-
Reduction half-equation:
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
6) Cl2 is the oxidant. It receives electrons and becomes chlorine
ions.
7) Fe is the reductant. It loses electrons and becomes Fe 2+ ions.
 Oxidation State/Number
• Oxidation state is equivalent to the oxidation number.
• To identify that a redox reaction has occurred, we can use the concept of oxidation state.
• The oxidation state is a value assigned to each element in elemental form, ionic compound
or covalent molecule.
• Reactions may not appear to be redox at first until oxidation states are used to confirm.
For example, the formation of the covalent molecule phosphorus trichloride is a redox
reaction.
P2 (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2PCl3 (l)
• Due to the chlorine being more electronegative than phosphorus, we can consider the
phosphorus has having partially transferred electrons to chlorine as each pair of bonding
electrons are found much closer to chlorine than phosphorus in each covalent bond.
 7 rules
1. The sum of the oxidation numbers of each element must add up to the net charge on a
molecule, or ion.
2. All elements in elemental form, whether they exist as individual atoms, diatomic molecules,
or with many atoms covalently bonded, have an oxidation number of zero. For example,
individual Fe atoms and each O atom in O2 are considered to have an oxidation number of
zero.
3. The charge on a monatomic ion is its oxidation number. For simple ionic compounds, the
valency of the element is also its oxidation number.
4. F always has oxidation number -1.
5. H has oxidation number +1 unless its is covalently bonded to a metal such as NaH.
6. O has oxidation number -2 except in certain cases. Examples: +2 in F2O and -1 in H2O2.
7. Cl, Br and I have oxidation number -1 unless bonded to O.
 Examples
P in phosphoric acid, S in thiosulfate ion, Br in NaBrO3
H3PO4 S2O32-
Let x be oxidation state Let y be oxidation state Let z be oxidation state of
of P. of S. Br.

3(+1) + x + 4(-2) = 0 2y + 3(-2) = -2 +1 + z + 3(-2) = 0

x = +5 y = +2 z = +5
 Problems
1) The metal exists as a monatomic ion in each compound below.
Determine each metal’s oxidation state (CrSO4, MnO2).
2) The non-metal exists as a monatomic ion in each compound
below. Determine each non-metal’s oxidation state (Li2S,
Mg3N2).
3) Calculate the oxidation number of the underlined element in
each (BF3, TiCl4, H3PO4).
 Solutions
Q1 Q2
(i) Let x be the oxidation (i) Let x be the oxidation number
number of Cr. of S.
x + -2 + 4(-2) = 0 2(+1) + y = 0
x = +10 y = -2

(ii) Let y be the oxidation (ii)Let y be the oxidation number of

number of Mn. N.
y + 2(-2) = 0 3(+2) + 2y = 0
y = +4 y = -3
 Solutions

(i) BF3 (ii) TiCl4 (iii) H3PO4

Let x be the oxidation Let y be the oxidation Let z be the oxidation
state of B. state of Ti. state of P.

x + 3(-1) = 0 y + 4(-1) = 0 3(+1) + z + 4(-2) = 0

x = +3 y = +4 z = +5
 Using oxidation number
We can confirm a redox reaction by determining whether there is an
increase in oxidation number (oxidation) and a decrease in oxidation
number (reduction) per atom in the reactants of an equation. The
formation of covalent phosphorus trichloride is a redox reaction.
2P2 (s) + 3Cl2 (g) → 2PCl3 (l)

Reactants Oxidation number Oxidation number

before after
P 0 +3
Cl 0 -1
 Redox reaction and oxidation
number
• Oxidation arises when there is an increase in the oxidation
number.
• Reduction arises when there is a decrease in the oxidation
number.
• Oxidation arises when oxygen is gained, or hydrogen is
lost.
• Reduction arises when hydrogen is gained, or oxygen is
lost.
 Example
2CrO42- + 2H+ → Cr2O72- + H2O

Reactant Oxidation number Oxidation number

before after
Cr +6 +6
O -2 -2
H +1 +1

Since the oxidation states of every element does not change, this is NOT a redox reaction.
 Problems
Identify the redox reactions. If they are a redox reaction, name the
element being oxidised and give its oxidation state. Also identify the
oxidising agent.
(i) phosphorus pentachloride + water → phosphoric acid +
hydrochloric acid
(ii) sulfuric acid + sulfur trioxide → oleum (H2S2O7)
(iii) zinc sulfide + oxygen → zinc oxide + sulfur dioxide
 Solutions
(i) phosphorus pentachloride + water → phosphoric acid + hydrochloric acid
PCl5 (s) + 4H2O(l) → H3PO4 (aq) + 5HCl(aq)
In phosphoric acid, let x the oxidation number of P. NOT REDOX
3(+1) + x + 4(-2) = 0
x = +5
Element Oxidation state before Oxidation state after
P +5 +5
Cl -1 -1
H +1 +1
O -2 -2
 Solutions
(ii) sulfuric acid + sulfur trioxide → oleum (H2S2O7)
H2SO4 (aq) + SO3 (g) → H2S2O7
Let x be the oxidation state of S in H2S2O7, NOT REDOX
2(+1) + 2x + 7(-2) = 0
x = +6

Element Oxidation state Oxidation state

before after
H +1 +1
S +6 +6
O -2 -2
 Galvanic Cell
• The transfer of electrons in a redox reaction is
electrical current if the half-equation reactions
take place in separated physical locations.
• Copper is oxidised and the concentration of copper
ions in the left beaker increases.
• Silver ions are reduced and the concentration of
silver ions in the right beaker decreases.
• Copper metal electrode dissolves whereas solid
silver deposits onto the silver electrode, which can
be confirmed by weighing.
• The Cu, Cu2+ half-cell equation is Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) +
2e-
• The Ag, Ag+ half-cell equation is Ag+(aq) + e- → Ag (s)
• Electrons flow through an external circuit and the
voltage can be measured.
 Salt Bridge
• Electrical neutrality must be maintained in each electrolyte
solution of both beakers.
• Ag+ ions leaving electrolyte solution gives a more negative
solution.
• Cu2+ ions entering electrolyte solution gives a more positive
solution.
• Salt bridge consists of ions that must not react with any ions in
either beakers. KNO3 is a suitable option because precipitates
cannot be formed with K+ or NO3-.
• K+ migrates towards the AgNO3 solution to counteract the
increasing negative charge caused by Ag+ ions coming out of
solution. Left alone, this solution would repel the electrons
from transferring over.
• NO3- migrates towards the Cu(NO3)2 solution to counteract the
increasing positive charge caused by Cu2+ ions entering the
solution. Left alone, this solution would attract and prevent
electrons from transferring over.
 Anode and cathode

• AN OX – Oxidation occurs at the anode (negatively charged – source of

electrons).
• RED CAT – Reduction occurs at the cathode (positively charged – takes
electrons).
 A second type of galvanic cell
• One beaker contains two ions with different oxidation
numbers.
• We are told that Ag, Ag+ electrode is positive.
• At the cathode, the half-reaction is
Ag+(aq) + e- → Ag(s)
• At the anode, the half-reaction is
Sn2+ → Sn4+ + 2e-
• Overall reaction is
2Ag+(aq) + Sn2+(aq) → 2Ag(s) + Sn4+(aq)
• Electrons flow out of the platinum wire through the external
voltmeter and into the silver electrode.
• Positive ions in the salt bridge will migrate to the Ag+ solution.
Negative ions will migrate into the Sn2+, Sn4+ solution.
 A third type of
galvanic cell
• We are told the platinum wire is positive.
• At the cathode, the half-reaction is
2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2 (g)
• At the anode, the half-reaction is
Al(s) → Al3+(aq) + 3e-
• Overall reaction is
2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2 (g)
• Electrons flow from the aluminium electrode
through the voltmeter and into the platinum
wire.
• Positive Al3+ ions flow towards the platinum
wire and negative SO42- ions flow towards the
aluminium electrode.
 Problem
One electrode consists of a piece of cadmium dipping into a cadmium
sulfate solution; it is connected by a salt bridge to another electrode
which consists of a strip of magnesium metal dipping into a
magnesium sulfate solution. The magnesium is the negative
electrode.
a) Draw a diagram showing this cell.
b) Write the electrode reactions and overall reaction.
c) In which directions do the electrons and ions move?
d) Identify the anode and cathode.
 Solution

b) Anode: Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + 2e-

Cathode: Cd2+(aq) + 2e- → Cd(s)
Overall: Mg(s) + Cd2+(aq) → Cd(s) + Mg2+(aq)
c) Electrons move from the Mg, Mg2+ electrode to the Cd, Cd2+ electrode. In the salt bridge, the
negative ions migrate to the Mg, Mg 2+ electrode because Mg going into the solution makes the
electrolyte here more positive. The positive ions migrate to the Cd, Cd 2+ electrode because
Cd2+ coming out of solution makes the electrolyte solution more negative.
d) Anode: Mg, Mg2+ electrode
Cathode: Cd, Cd2+ electrode
 Problem
One electrode consists of a copper wire dipping into a copper sulfate
solution; it is connected by a salt bridge to a solution containing both
V2+ and V3+ ions (along with sulfate ions). A piece of platinum wire
dips into this solution. The platinum wire is the negative electrode.
a) Draw a diagram showing this cell.
b) Write the electrode reactions and overall reaction.
c) In which directions do the electrons and ions move?
d) Identify the anode and cathode.
 Solution
b) Since the platinum wire is the negative electrode, reduction must occur here. Hence, the half-
reactions are,
2V2+(aq) → 2V3+(aq) + 2e-
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s)
The overall reaction is
2V2+(aq) + Cu2+(aq) → 2V3+(aq) + Cu(s)
c) Electrons travel from the electrode to the Cu, Cu2+ electrode. Negative ions migrate towards the
V2+, V3+electrode because the concentration of positive V3+ ions in electrolyte is increasing.
Positive ions migrate towards the Cu, Cu2+ electrode because the electrolyte is becoming more
negative due to an decreasing concentration of Cu2+ ions.
d) Anode: V2+, V3+electrode
Cathode: Cu, Cu2+ electrode
 Standard electrode potentials
• Experiments conducted tell us about the electrical energy arising
from the current passing through the external circuit using
different electrodes.
• This electrical energy is described in the voltage (also potential
difference or electromotive force) in the galvanic cell.
• The unit of voltage is the volt.
• Measurements taken of voltage are performed under the standard
state, where the electrolyte solution has a concentration of 1.000
mol/L, and any gas has pressure 100.0 kPa.
Potential
• Zero gravitational potential energy can be
arbitrarily set at Earth’s surface. The potential
difference is the change in gravitational potential
energy when a mass is lifted or dropped.
• The H+, H2 electrode has a standard electrode
potential of zero.
2H+(aq) + 2e- → H2 (g)
• All other standard electrode potential/standard
reduction potential/standard redox potential is
measured relative to the H+, H2 electrode potential.
 Standard reduction potential
• All standard electrode potentials are reduction potentials only. They
describe the voltage that arises from the reduction of a substance.
• Some standard reduction potentials are
Zn2+(aq) + 2e- → Zn(s) (-0.76V)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) (+0.34V)
• The voltages of their oxidation half reactions has the opposite sign.
Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e- (+0.76V)
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e- (-0.34V)
 Voltage for a redox reaction
• Recall that a redox reaction is composed of two half reactions. For
example,
Net ionic Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) +
2Ag(s)
Reduction 2Ag+(aq) + 2e- → 2Ag(s)
Oxidation Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e-
• The voltage of this redox reaction is the sum of the voltages of each half
reaction. We can search a table of standard electrode potentials for these.
Half reaction Voltage (V)
2Ag+(aq) + 2e- → 2Ag(s) +0.80
Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e- -0.34V
 Voltage for a redox reaction
34)

• We also find that the voltage of the

redox reaction is equal to the voltage
of the galvanic cell with the
equivalent half reactions.
 Problems
Calculate the standard voltages for these reactions.

a) Sn4+(aq) + Fe(s) → Sn2+(aq) + Fe2+(aq)

b) Pb(s) + Fe2+(aq) → Fe(s) + Pb2+(aq)
 Solution
a) Oxidation: Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e- (+0.44V)
Reduction: Sn4+(aq) + 2e- → Sn2+(aq) (+0.15V)
Standard voltage = 0.44 + 0.15 = +0.59 V
b) Oxidation: Pb(s) → Pb2+(aq) + 2e- (+0.13V)
Reduction: Fe2+(aq) + 2e- → Fe(s) (-0.45V)
Standard voltage = -0.32 V
This negative standard voltage actually indicates that the reaction
actually goes in the opposite direction. It is not spontaneous.
 Spontaneity
• A redox reaction written in a certain direction will proceed
spontaneously to produce energy if its voltage is positive.

Net ionic Voltage

Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) +0.46 V
Cu2+(aq) + 2Ag(s) → Cu(s) + 2Ag+(aq) - 0.46 V

• The first reaction is spontaneous. The second reaction

requires energy input.
 Example One: Galvanic Cell
Calculate the standard voltage of a galvanic cell that consists of a bromine
electrode (Pt wire dipping into a solution containing both Br2 and Br-) joined
by a salt bridge to a magnesium electrode (strip of Mg dipping into a
magnesium sulfate solution).
Solution
Reduction always occurs at the electrode with the more positive electrode
potential.
Reduction half reaction Voltage (V)
Br2 (g) + 2e- → 2Br-(aq) +1.10
Mg2+(aq) + 2e- → Mg(s) -2.36
 Example One: Galvanic Cell
• Since the Br2, Br+ electrode has the more positive reduction
potential, it must be the cathode. The reduction half reaction
occurs here.
• Oxidation occurs at the Mg2+, Mg electrode.
• Hence,
+1.10 + (+2.36)
= 3.46 V
• This is a galvanic cell so its reaction must be spontaneous.
 Example Two: Galvanic Cell
A galvanic cell consists of a Cu2+, Cu electrode combined
with a Ti2+, Ti electrode. Under standard conditions the
voltage of this cell is 1.94 V with the copper electrode
positive. Calculate the standard electrode potential of the
titanium electrode.
Solution
We are told that the copper electrode is positive so
reduction occurs here.
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- → Cu(s) (+0.34V)
 Example Two: Galvanic Cell
The galvanic cell voltage is 1.94V so

Since the sign is reversed for the voltage of the oxidation

half-reaction, the standard reduction potential for the Ti,
Ti2+ electrode is -1.6 V.
 Reactivity of Metals
• The half reaction electrode with the more positive
standard reduction potential has reduction take place
there.
• Oxidation must occur at the other electrode.
• Oxidation involves the loss of electrons, which is what a
more reactive metal does.
• Hence, the standard reduction potentials of a more
reactive metal has a more negative value.
 Galvanic Cell
Experiment
1) Add 10 mL of each
electrolyte solution in two
separate 50 mL beakers.
2) Soak the filter paper strip in
the potassium nitrate
solution.
3) Connect the external circuit
through the meter.
4) Observe the reading on the
meter.
 Rates of reaction
• All chemical reactions occur with a certain speed.
• This rate can be described by measuring the change of
concentration with time of a reactant as it is being used
up, or of a product as it is being formed.
 Average rate at
different
intervals
2NO(g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
For the formation of NO2 ,
Over the first 70 seconds,

Over the first 10 seconds,

Over the last 10 seconds,

 Instantaneous rate
• The average rate can change depending on the time interval
selected to calculate it.
• In general, the rate of reaction is faster at the beginning of the
reaction and decreases over time. We can see this when we
compare the rate of reaction in the last 10 seconds to the first 10
seconds in the formation of NO2.
• If we shrink the time interval from 10 seconds to an infinitesimally
small interval (approaching ∆t = 0), then we find the instantaneous
rate of reaction at each second (or moment in time).
• The instantaneous rate of reaction at a given time is the gradient of
the curve at that time. This is the most accurate description of the
rate of reaction.
• Note that rate of reaction is always positive so we would simply
remove the negative sign for a negative gradient as occurs when
graphing the decrease of NO reactant during the reaction.
 Collision Theory
• For a single reaction between one set of reactants to
occur successfully, three conditions must be met. The
reactants must
- collide
- have above a minimum kinetic energy
- be correctly orientated
Concentration
 Kinetic energy
and Temperature
• The kinetic energy of gases is proportional to
absolute temperature.
• However, each gas molecule in a reactant may have
a different kinetic energy.
• A sample of the gas would have a distribution of
energy that would have a higher proportion of
molecules with the minimum needed to initiate the
reaction when reactants collide.
• This minimum energy is the activation energy, EA.
• Note how the orange shaded area is much larger
than the blue because there are many more gas
molecules with kinetic energy greater than the
activation energy.
• A higher temperature gives a higher reaction rate
because more particles have energy equal to or
greater than the minimum required.
Activation energy

Exothermic Endothermic
(releases energy) (absorbs energy)
 Orientation
CO(g) + NO2 (g) → CO2 (g) +
NO(g)

The CO must collide with

the oxygen of the NO2.

Otherwise, the two

molecules bounce off one
another and remain.
 Surface Area
• Heterogenous reactions happen
at the border between two
reactants with different phases.
For example, acid-metal
reaction.
• The surface area of the solid
phase can be increased by
crushing or stirring so more
solid particles can be exposed to
the other reactant.
 Homogenous
catalysis
• Catalysts lower the activation energy of
a chemical reaction.
• This reaction occurs very slowly
because it has a high activation energy.
2SO2 (g) + O2 (g) → 2SO3 (g)
• However, in the presence of the catalyst
NO2, it proceeds as a combination
where NO2 is not re-formed.
SO2 (g) + NO2 (g) → SO3 (g) + NO (g)
2NO(g) + O2 (g) → 2NO2 (g)
• With the catalyst, the reaction proceeds
much quicker because many more
reactants successfully react together to
give SO3.
 Heterogenous catalysis
• Reactant bonds weaken or break when adsorbed onto a
solid catalyst, nickel.
C2H4 (g) + H2 (g) → C2H6 (g)
• In this reaction, H2 is broken up into H atoms more easily
once adsorbed onto the nickel.
• The product, C2H6 molecule, can then desorb
and leave the nickel surface.
Experiment: Rate of reaction
• Temperature (Use 1M
of HCl)
• 10 mL of HCl
• 0oC, 25oC and 50 – 60 oC
• 3 cm of Mg
• Concentration
• 10 mL of HCl
• 0.1M, 0.5 M, 1 M
and 2 M
• 3 cm of Mg
 Safety
HCl:
- DO NOT HEAT THE ACID HIGHER THAN 60oC
- Use only dilute HCl for the temperature experiment
- Wear safety glasses
- Wash off with water
 Results (Temperature)

Time (s) Vol. of Gas (cm3) at Vol. of gas (cm3) at Vol. of gas (cm3) at
0⁰C 25⁰C 50⁰C
0
10
20
30
40
 Results (Concentration)

Tim Vol. of Gas Vol. of gas (cm3) Vol. of gas (cm3) at Vol. of gas (cm3)
e (s) (cm3) at 0.1M at 0.5M 1M at 2M

0
10
20
30
40
 Sample Graphs
Concentration
Temperature
50 46
35 45 41
Volume of Gas (cm3)

30 29 40
34 34

Volume of Gas
25 25 35
23 30
20 25 25
18.5 25
15 15.5 20 17
10 10 15 10
7.5 9
5 10
50 3
1 1 1
0 0 0.5
0 1
0 0
00 0 0 0.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Time (s)
Time (s)

0 25 50
0.12 0.5 1 2