PSYCHOLOGY

By;

Nalwoga Juliet

(RMN,SPCO,BSDC,MCPC)
 Objectives

1. To introduce students to the basic concepts of around the

subject.

2. To enable students acquire an understanding of various

theoretical perspectives (schools of thought) in psychology.
3. To understand why humans behave the way they do
4. To identify the relevancy of psychology in life.
 Introduction to Psychology
(outline of the study)

Psychology deals with the daily human behaviors and

cognition.

 It is important for the PCO student to get clear

understanding of this knowledge and offer understanding of
the relevancy of psychology in our daily lives and most
important to know the relevancy of psychology in the
professional growth as psychiatric clinical officers.
 Nature of Psychology

 The word psychology is derived from Greek word ,psych

(mind, soul or spirit) and logos (discourse of study) when
put together produce “study of the mind”.
 Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior. The
discipline embraces all aspects of the human experience —
from the functions of the brain to the actions of nations,
from child development to care for the aged.
 In every conceivable setting from scientific research
centers to mental health care services, “the
understanding of behavior” is the enterprise of
psychologists.
 Psychology is the scientific investigation of how people
behave, think, and feel. It includes underlying
mechanisms that involve the environment, biology, and
the mind.
 The study literally refers to the study of the mind
however scientists refer to it as the study of behavior
and its mental processes.
 Behavior simply means an individuals actions with in a
period of 24hr which is observable by any means.
 Mental processes on the other hand refers to psycho
processes e.g.; Attention, Personality, Learning,
Memory, Emotions, Intelligence etc.
 Apart from psycho processes behavior is made of
sensations and biological aspects e.g. the nervous system
through which physical information is channeled to genes
and endocrine system.
 Psychological investigations try to describe, predict,
analyze, and create actionable outcomes that help people.
Actionable outcomes include therapy, learning design,
altering protocols at a workplace, etc.
 Specializations and branches of psychology

 The following broad branches of psychology will elucidate the overall nature and
scope of psychology.

 Clinical psychology – the study, assessment, prevention, coping, and treatment of

mental health issues and disorders such as depression & schizophrenia.

 Organizational & industrial psychology – the study of how professional

environments function with respect to employment, assessment & recruiting,
workplace wellbeing, conflict resolution, team building, etc.

 Social psychology – the study of how people interact in social contexts and what
variable affect social behavior, identity, and cognition.

 Cognitive psychology – the study of mental processes that enable thinking,

feeling, language, art, etc.
 Behavioral psychology – the study of human and animal behavior.

 Developmental psychology – the study of specific factors relevant to a certain

age group or developmental stage across a lifespan and trends across the
lifespan

 Evolutionary psychology – the study of human and animal behavior in an

evolutionary context and the study of adaptability and deeply rooted
tendencies.

 Forensic psychology – the study of how criminals behave and think

 Neuropsychology – the assessment of brain functioning in a clinical setting

 Positive psychology – the study of wellbeing and living a good life.

 Neuroscience – the study of the brain as a biological unit and its specifics that may
or may not directly relate to behavior, thoughts, or feelings. It includes an
understanding of how neurons communicate and function.

 Sports psychology – the study, training, and coping of sportsmen

 School psychology – the study of a variety of psychological variables in a school

context

 Cyber-psychology – the study of human behavior with a focus on internet-based

behavior.

 These are just 14 of the broad specializations. There are many more – geriatric
psychology, engineering psychology, counseling psychology, experimental and
quantitative psychology, etc.
Approaches to the study of (psychology\schools of thought)

 There are many different theories and models within psychology

which try to explain our behavior, emotion and thoughts. Each theory

contributes something different and increases our understanding.

 Therefore, basically psychologists start out with a hypothesis or idea,

which they then test. This idea is the basis for empirical research.
 Theory - A set of assumptions advanced to explain existing

phenomena and predict new events.

 Paradigm - Representation or model of reality.

 Hypothesis – Explanation for observed data that has still to be tested.

 Hypothesis testing – Gathering information and testing alternative

explanations of certain phenomena.

 Empirical –A finding based on experience or observed evidence, the basis for

experimental science.

 There a number of different approaches/theories and models within

psychology which try to explain our behavior, emotion and thoughts. Each
theory contributes something different and increases our understanding. The
following are the most common ones.
 Neurobiological approach

 Some psychologists maintain a close link with the discipline of

physiology: they perceive the brain and nervous system as the main
key to human behavior, and tend to study the relationship between
psychological events (what happens in the mind) and biological
events (what happens in the body).

 Many neurobiologists believe that thought and feelings result from

the actions of nerves and the nervous system in the body. For
instance, they argue that dreams are the result of activated
neurological patterns or random firing of nerve cells.
 Behavioural approach

 Another fairly conservative approach is that of behaviorists psychologists.

The founder of this school of thought, J. B. Watson,(1913) was the father of

the science of psychology (though not of the study of psychology).

 He argued that if psychology was to be scientific, it must focus exclusively

on human observable behavior. Behaviorists studied the conditioning

processes that produce behavior. Humanistic focused on each individual's

potential and stressed the importance of growth and self actualization.

 Watson did not think psychologists should speculate on

the unobservable workings of our minds, as they could

not be studied scientifically. Watson’s approach still has

a strong following due to its practical applications, e.g.

In reducing phobias and so on.

 Much of behavioural research is executed with subjects
under experimental conditions, using a stimulus
response approach. The psychologist provides a
stimulus for an individual, then observes and studies the
individual’s response to that stimulus.
 Behaviorists are sometimes referred to as "black box"
theorists because they treat the mind like a clean slate
that has attitudes and behavioral patterns inscribed on it
due to learning.
 Cognitive approach

 Cognitive comes from the Latin cognito, meaning to Apprehend or

understand. The cognitive approach developed largely as a reaction to

the behavioural approach. Cognitive psychologists argue that

individuals do not passively respond to stimuli, but actively process

information in their brain before responding to the information.

 They are interested in what happens in the mind between the stimulus

and the response. They look at topics such as perception, memory,

thought, language and attention. They try to explain behaviour in terms

of these mental processes.

Cognitive psychology is used in many different ways, such as suggestions on how
to improve our memories, improving performance in situations that require
concentration, such as air traffic controllers and so on.

Key Definitions

 Cognition- A general term including all mental processes by which people

become aware of and understand the world.

 Perception; The process of becoming aware of objects and events by way of

sensory organs.

 Stimulus - Sensory input which leads to a response.

 Response - The behavioural result of stimulation in the form of movement or

glandular secretion.

 Performance – Overt (observable) actions or behaviour.

 Psychoanalytical approach

 One of the most fascinating and influential approaches to human behaviour is

psychoanalysis, developed by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Where the above

approaches were formulated on the basis of mainly experimental studies,

Freud based his theories upon intensive case studies of a considerable range

of patients.

 Psychoanalysis focuses on understanding unconscious mental processes /

activities that motivate and drive behaviour . According to Freud, much of

the individual’s observable behaviour is influenced by wishes, desires or

fears which the individual has learned to suppress because they are not

socially acceptable.
 As the child develops and learns that some feelings and
desires are disapproved of, these wishes, desires and fears are
buried deep in the mind, leading to the development of the
unconscious

 According to Freud, these unconscious impulses still find

expression though as dreams, fantasies, slips of the tongue,
symptoms of mental illness, as well as in artistic expression,
and the individual’s psychological history plays an immense
role in particular behavior patterns.
 All of the approaches previously discussed adhere firmly
to the scientific principles of objectivity -the human
individual is perceived as a passive object of analysis
rather than an active agent of his/her own destiny.

 On the one hand, behaviorists claim that human behavior

is largely shaped by environmental stimuli; and on the
other hand psychoanalysts claim that behavior is shaped
by unconscious impulses beyond the individual's control.
 Phenomenological approach

 It is these neglected aspects of human behavior that the

phenomenologist chooses to emphasize. For these reasons,

phenomenological psychology is often called humanistic

psychology Abraham Maslow (1962).

 The phenomenological approach rejects the view that the

individual is a passive result of uncontrollable forces.

 The phenomenologist focuses on the individual’s active,
subjective experience, for this approach emphasizes the
individual’s personal interpretation of the world as a cause of
behavior. individual is regarded as a free agent with the
ability to choose his or her own values, actions and goals.
 Because this approach is so person-centred, it has perhaps
received less attention than experimental research, yet it has
had a profound influence on methods of therapy and
counseling.
 Eclectic approach

 Although the above approaches have been

discussed in isolation, it is important to note that
modern psychologists rarely align themselves with
one approach exclusively. They are more likely to
incorporate aspects of several theories into their
approach. This is called the eclectic approach.
 Neuro Biological Basis of Psychology
( Biological Approach/Theory)

 This theory explains the relationship between the Brain and

the Body and how they relate to influence behavior.
According to Gross (1992) it states that behavior is
determined by physiological, neurological factors and
processes that influence the central nervous system
especially the brain.
 Physiology; this refers to both voluntary and involuntary body
mechanisms e.g sweating, heartbeat

 Behavior ; Glasser (1985) defines behavior as all we know, how

to do, think and feel and we are familiar with.

 Theory; can be defined as a group of logically organize laws or

relationships that constitute explanations in a discipline. (Heinen
1985)
 The Nervous System
 The biological basis of behavior is an integral part of the study of psychology. the
important point to remember is that psychologists are interested in biology not for its
own sake but for what it can tell them about behavior and mental processes.

 They are also interested in biology because the kind of behavior which an animal
species is capable depends very much on the kind of body it possesses humans can
flap their arms but cannot fly, this is determined by the kind of nervous system each
specie possesses.

 The kind of nervous system also determines the extent and the nature of learning of
which a specie is capable
Overview of the human Nervous System (structure and Function)

 The nervous system as whole comprises of between 10 and 12 billion nerve cells or
neurons and these are the basic structural units or building blocks of the NS.

 The nervous system is divided into central and peripheral nervous systems, and the two
heavily interact with one another.

 The peripheral nervous system controls volitional (somatic nervous system) and
nonvolitional (autonomic nervous system) behaviors using cranial and spinal nerves.

 The central nervous system is divided into forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain, and each
division performs a variety of tasks; for example, the cerebral cortex in the forebrain
houses sensory, motor, and associative areas that gather sensory information, process
information for perception and memory, and produce responses based on incoming and
inherent information.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Peripheral Nervous System

 The peripheral nervous system is divided into somatic and autonomic nervous

systems. Where the somatic nervous system consists of cranial nerves (12

pairs) and spinal nerves (31 pairs) and is under the volitional control of the

individual in maneuvering bodily muscles,

 The autonomic nervous system also running through these nerves lets the

individual have little control over muscles and glands.

 Main divisions of the autonomic nervous system that control visceral

structures are the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

 The sympathetic nervous system, at an appropriate cue (say a fear-
inducing object like a snake), the sympathetic division generally
energizes many muscles (e.g., heart) and glands (e.g., adrenals), causing
activity and release of hormones that lead the individual to negotiate the
fear-causing snake with fight-or-flight responses. Whether the individual
decides to fight the snake or run away from it, either action requires
energy; in short, the sympathetic nervous system says “go, go, go.”

 The parasympathetic nervous system, on the other hand, curtails

undue energy mobilization into muscles and glands and modulates the
response by saying “stop, stop, stop.” This push–pull tandem system
regulates fight-or-flight responses in all of us.
 THE NEURONS AND NERVES

THE NEURON

 The base of the nervous system is the neuron. Neurons are cells that are
specialized for communicating information. They are the basic tissue and
element of the nervous system.

 The NS as a whole comprise of between 10 and 12 billions nerve cells or

neurons, these are the basic structural units or building blocks of the NS.
 The cell body (or soma) is the bulbous end of a neuron, containing the cell
nucleus. The soma makes use of nutrients to supply energy for neuronal activity.

 Axons are organelles that carry information away from the cell body. Axons
may be as small as several microns. The axons main job is to send a signal to the
dendrites of another neuron, but some say that they may also receive signals in
certain situations. Each neuron has only one axon, but the axon may have
branches with what are called terminal buttons at its end. One axon Is a thin
cylinder of protoplasm, which project away from the cell body and carries the
signals received by the dendrites to the neurons.

 Dendrites are organelles that sense the neurotransmitter secreted by the axon of
another neuron. Most neurons have more than one dendrite. Dendrites and axons
do not directly touch each other; there is a gap, called a synapse.
 The myelin sheath is a white, fatty substance, which insulates the axon and speeds up the rate of
conduction of signals down the axon and towards the terminal buttons or synaptic knobs the myelin
sheath is not continuous but is interrupted by the Nodes of Ranvier.

 The terminal buttons house a number of tinny sac or synaptic vesicles which contain between 10-
100,000 molecules of chemical messenger called neuro transmitters. When an electric chemical impulse
has passed down the axon it arrives at a terminal button and stimulates the vesicles to discharge their
content into the minute gap between the end of the terminal button ( the presynaptic membrane) and the
dendrites of the receiving neuron ( the postsynaptic membrane) called the synaptic cleft.

 Glial cells. The amount of glial cells to every neuron in the nervous system is disputed. Glial cells
function as support for the neurons; they produce the myelin sheath which surrounds some neurons and
also form part of the blood-brain barrier. The blood-brain barrier is a structure that prevents certain
substances in the bloodstream from reaching the brain. Many axons are sheathed with tubes of myelin,
which is a fatty material. Myelin is produced by the glial cells. The myelin sheaths on axons have gaps,
which are called the nodes of Ranvier. Myelinated sheaths help transmit information quickly and
efficiently.
 The Transmission of the Signal

 The transmission of the signal is basically the same in all cells, the signal is sent
across the synapse by the axon and the dendrite of the next cell picks up the signal.

 The neuron communicate with one another at a junctions called the synapse. at
this point one neuron sends a message to a target neuron of another cell.

 Most synapses are chemicals; these synapses communicate using chemical

massagers. Other synapses are electrical; in these synapses ions flow directly
between cells. The synaptic transmission can either be electrical or chemical and in
some cases both at the same synapse. However the chemical transmission is more
common and more implicated.

 At a chemical synapse, an action potential triggers the presynaptic neuron to

release neurotransmitters. These molecules bind to the receptors on the
postsynaptic cell and make it more or less likely to fire an action potential.
 Transmission at chemical synapses

Neurotransmitter

 The terminal button at the end of the axon holds the synaptic vesicles. When the signal
reaches the end of the axon the vesicles discharge a chemical called a neurotransmitter.

 Neurotransmitters are chemicals that are used to relay, amplify and modulate electrical
signals between a neuron and another cell. There are approximately 40 to 60 different
chemicals that are used as neurotransmitters.

 The neurotransmitters from the axon fit into receptors of the dendrite on the next
neuron. They will then either excite the cell and make it fire or inhibit it and stop it
from doing so.

 The sum of the excitation and inhibition of the neuron is called the graded potential. If
the graded potential is greater than that cell's threshold then the cell fires, sending the
message to the next cell.
Resting Potential

 When the cell hasn't fired for a certain amount of time it is considered at its resting
potential. The resting potential of a neuron is approx. -70 mV because the membrane
surrounding the cell lets in positive potassium ions (K+) and negative chloride ions (Cl-)
and keeps out positive sodium ions (Na+). ( K+ ions, plus negatively charged protein
molecules are inside the presynaptic membrane, while out side the neuron there are
positively charged Na+ ions and negatively charged CL- ions this is done by the
action of the sodium potassium pump in the cell membrane which allows k+ and
Na+ ions to move in freely). It is easier to fire a cell that is at its resting potential than
one that is in the refractory phase.
Action potential

 When the graded potential passes the neurons threshold, an action potential
takes place. The action potential sends the signal the entire length of the cell
and never dies within the cell, which can be referred to as the all-or-none-
principle. (During firing the inside of the cell becomes positive the
sodium channels now become permeable to Na+ ions flooding into the
neuron then the K+ ions move out thru the membrane. which is
sometimes called Depolarization or the raising phase of the action
potential. After the action potential hits its peak the cell starts the
refractory phase. But as soon as the sodium channels open they close again
allowing the K+ to go in causing the resting potential.,
Refractory Phase

 After the action potential changes the neuron from negative to positive there is a refractory
phase where it changes back to negative. At the beginning of this period it is impossible for
another signal to be transmitted, this is called absolute refractory phase. After the
absolute refractory phase is the relative refractory phase where it is possible to send
another signal but more excitation than normal is needed.

Signal Strength

 For the signal to be passed from one neuron to the next it must have enough energy to break
a point called the threshold. Once the threshold is broken the signal is transmitted. The
neuron fires at the same strength every time. The strength of a signal is decided by how
many different neurons are being fired and at what frequency they are being fired.
 In some cases the change makes the target cell more likely to fire its own action
potential. In this case the shift membrane potential is called an excitatory
postsynaptic potential, ( EPSP). An EPSP is depolarized it makes the inside of the
cell more positive bringing the membrane potential closer to its thresh hold for firing
an action potential. Some times a single EPSE is not large enough to bring the neuron
to threshold but it can sum together with other EPSPS to trigger an action potential.

 In other cases the changes make the target cell less likely to fire an action potential
and is called an inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP). IPSPs have the opposite
effect ( inhibitory) by making the membrane potential of the postsynaptic neuron
below threshold for firing an action potential. IPSPs are important because they can
counteract, or cancel out, the excitatory effect of EPSPs.

 NB this is how excitatory and inhibitory drugs work in the body.

 What makes the synapse excitatory or inhibitory is the particular neurotransmitter
contained within the vesicles of the synapse button.

 A region of the surface of the receptor site is precisely made to match the shape of
the transmit or molecule ( in a lock and key fashion).

Signal termination

 The synapse can only function effectively if there is some way to “ turn off “ the
signal once it has been sent. The termination of the signal lets the postsynaptic cell
return to its normal resting potential, ready for a new signals to arrive.

 For the signals to end, the synaptic cleft must be cleared of neurotransmitter, and
there are few different ways to get this done.
 The effect of the transmitter is brought to an end either by deactivation (where
it is destroyed by special enzyme ) or by re-uptake where it is pumped back
(sucked up) into the presynaptic axon, it can be “mopped up “ by the glial
cells.

 Anything that interferes with the above processes that terminate the synaptic
signal can have significant physiological effects for instance. Drugs that
interfere with reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the human brain
are used as antidepressants, e.g. Prozac.
 According to Iversen (1979) and others there are at least thirty different
neurotransmitters in the brain, each with its specific excitatory or inhibitory
effects on certain neuron these are localized in specific groups of neurons and
pathways and are not randomly distributed in the brain the following are some
of the major transmitters and their effects.
 Major transmitters and their effects
Effects on receiving neuron Related behavior

Acetylcholine (Ach) Generally excitatory but can be Voluntary movement of muscles

inhibitory depending on receptor behavior inhibitory, drinking,
molecule memory

Noradrenaline, norepinephrine Inhibitory in CNS and excitatory in Wakefulness and arousal emotions
ANS depression is associated with low
levels, mania high levels

Dopamine Inhibitory and excitatory Movements, emotional arousal

parkinsonian due to its slow
release. schizophrenia excess,

serotonin Inhibitory and excitatory Sleep temperature regulation

 Effects of major psychotic drugs on neuro transmitters
Drug Neurotransmitter affected Effects on physiology, mood
and behavior

Antidepressants Work by blocking the breakdown Feeling of euphoria, they block

of noradrenaline and serotonin REM sleep

Major tranquilizers Bind dopamine receptors as Calming effect reduce anxiety,

( phenothiazines) antagonist blocking dopamine on tension
reaching the receptor

Hallucinogens Produce calmness,, appetite,

illusions, hallucinations

Sedatives Hypnotics, ,Anesthetic effects In small can be excitatory in

large sedative

stimulants Caffeine found in tea Nicotine produces relaxing

effects, addictive
 The brain

The brain is made up of connected structures, each with its own functions and
these can be subdivided into three main parts;

i. The fore brain

ii. The mid brain

iii. The hind brain

The central nervous system
 The Fore Brain

 This is the cerebrum and these are two longest structure at the top of the brain with folds. It is further
divided into lobes each with its functions

A. THE LOBES.

i. The Temporal Lobes; these are two and have hearing center which are responsible for providing
various auditory experiences in terms of identification and discrimination of various sounds, stimuli
present in the environment. Their destruction causes deafness.

ii. The Parietal Lobes; this is posteriorly located in the body sensory area it controls the bodily
sensations such as temperature, pain, feelings of objects.

 Iii, The Frontal Lobe; it is interiorly located and commonly known as the association area ,this
directly influences the sensory and motor areas, it is where the higher mental functions are like
thinking, reasoning, learning etc. Individuals ability to order ones behavior and direct it towards a
goal depends on these areas.

 Iv, The Occipital Lobe, it is located at the back or the head it is the visual area responsible for
discriminating and identifying shape, distance, size and color destruction can cause blindness
B.THE THALAMUS

This has the grey matter and has a critical link between the cerebrum and the
sense organs. All sensory signals pass via the thalamus it serves as a relay station
it integrates information from the sense organs to the cortex. It plays a role in the
limb movement and helps in sleep and waking.

C, HYPOTHALAMUS

This part controls body internal environment ( homeostasis and motivation)

including things like eating, drinking, sexual behavior and emotional arousal

(aggression and pleasure) it works in two ways by sending electro-chemical

signals to the Autonomic nervous system and by influencing the pituitary gland

thru a net work of blood vessels and neurons.

D,THE LIMBIC SYSTEM

This is commonly known as the (nose brain) it has olfactory senses, it is closely

involved with behavior which satisfy emotional needs like feeding, fighting/

aggression and mating. It is the meeting place for the cortex and other part of the

brain. As it receives interpreter information about the world from the hypothalamus it

gets information about the body's internal state and a conclusion or feeding back is

given depending on the need.

 THE MID BRAIN
 It is an extension of the brain stem and connects forebrain to spinal cord. The
main structure here is the reticular activating system (RAS) which ascends
from the spinal cord to forebrain carrying mainly sensory information and
descend to the forebrain to the spinal cord with motor information.

 The RAS is involved in alertness and focusing attention. It monitors incoming

information and decides on which is important and discards that one
unnecessary. It is also involved in waking and sleeping; if the sensory input is
diminished the brain begins to produce its own stimulation thru hallucinations
which serve to keep it aroused. psychologists believe that the defect can cause
schizophrenia which is a psychosis characterized by hallucinations that are
disturbing.
 THE HIND BRAIN (Cerebellum)

 This is the part that synthesizes all sensory information from vision
and inner ear which controls balance the muscles, joints can
calculate the movements required in a particular sequence of
behavior. Damage of the cerebellum causes tremors, loss of
balance.it acts as an autonomic pilot inside the brain.

a. The Medulla Oblongata.

It is a thick extension of the spinal cord it contains vital reflex centers

which control ,breathing cardiac functions swallowing
vomiting ,coughing, chewing, salivation and facial movements.
 THE SPINALCORD
 The spinal cord lies in the center of the connected vertebrae of the back born
that runs the major nerve of the body, it is the main communication cable
between the brain (CNS) and the peripheral Nervous system (PNS) Providing
the pathway between the body and the brain when you react to sudden pain or
drop of hot water you do so without the brain or the spinal cord but complex
actions like withdraw of hands would involve the higher brain centers.

 Normally the message sense impulse caught thru sensory nerves are convey to
the brain by spinal cord and it is the brain to take immediate action needed,
but when the spinal cord gets emergency signal it directs the motor nerves by
its self to run the muscle for necessary action,.

 There is no definite division between the spinal cord and the brain
 The Endocrine System

 Besides the nervous system the human body also poses a second major and
coordinating system for regulating its internal mechanisms and this is the system. This
system works autonomically by means of specific body structures called endocrine
glands.

 The underactivity or over productivity of these gland caused by deficiency or

excessive hormone secreted by them affects not only growth and development of an
individual but also their entire behavior.

 Its imbalance may cause unusual restlessness, anxiety, weakness and other mental
disorders. Our physical strength, moral thinking, reasoning, decision making ability
depends upon the health of the glands.
 In times of fear or anger, the adrenal glands work to top up speed to produce extra
ordinally levels of physical activity to give you more strength to fight harder than
you realize.

 If one is injured or in pain the brain produces a powerful pain killers called
encephalin and endorphins which work by interfering with the release of neural
transmitters hence blocking information about pain so you do not feel pain
immediately.

 It is also believed some hormones are responsible for mental disorders e.g. over
activity of dopamine will led to schizophrenia this was seen in brains of deceased
patients (Snyder,1980) excessive noradrenaline causing Mania ad low levels causing
depression.
 Practical contributions of the Neurobiological approach

 The discovery of encephalin' and endorphins as a body's powerful pain killers has led to
manufacturing of pain killers like Morphine using the same principles.

 It is believed that during acupuncture and hypnosis the encephalin and endorphins are
produced by the body hence treating pain.

 The placebos (dummy drugs) that work by influencing their release of endorphins which
may be important in the way we deal with pain and stress.

 By learning the effects of neuro transmitters in relation to physiology ,mood and behavior
scientists have been able to come up with drugs that treat mental disorders like
Amphetamines which work by blocking the release of dopamine and re –uptake of
Noradrenaline hence treating depression and mania.

 Cannabis ,Marijuana which make some one feel good, It’s high dose cause psychotic
symptoms. they have been able to come up with drugs that are less harmful but with similar
 STATE OF CONSCIUSNESS
Basic Principles and Assumptions
 In 1950;s some neuroscientists , philosophers and psychologists were interested in how the brain can generate the

consciousness. They discussed sleep as a state of consciousness trying to find correlations between objectives

measures of physiological activity and subjective experience in particular dreaming.

 Hobson (1995) described rhythm of activity, the primordial of sleeping and waking represent one of the most

universal and basic features of life so the study of sleep is of interest to biologists and psychologists.

 Being conscious means having sensations of pain, cold, hunger, fear etc. Gross (1992) described consciousness as;

i. When we are awake we are conscious but when we are asleep or in coma we have been “knocked out” by a punch

to the head.

ii. When we do something consciously we do it deliberately or knowingly, but to do something automatically or

without having to think about it is to do it unconsciously.

iii. Advertising campaigns ( erg anti-drugs) aim at increasing public awareness of the risk and dangers of associated

with taking drugs.

 According to Singer (1998), self-consciousness is the experience of one's own
individually with subject feeling. He also claims that when we say we are conscious we
usually mean that we perceive and remember in away that makes it possible to report
about that perceived and remembered content.

 Similarly, psychologists and other scientists in trying to understand consciousness and

define it in different ways.

 Freud described conscious as a whole comprising of three levels;

1. The conscious; what we are fully aware of anytime.

2. The pre-conscious what we could become aware of quiet easily if we switched our
attention to it.

3. The unconscious, what we pushed out of our conscious mind, thru repression making it
extremely inaccessible although it continues to exert an influence on our thoughts,
feelings and behavior.