FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

AND GRAPHICAL
PRESENTATION OF DATA

Prof. Pravin Prakash

• The arrangement of data in different groups on the
basis of some similarities is known as
classification.
• According to Tuttle, “ A classification is a scheme
for breaking a category into a set of parts, called
classes, according to some precisely defined
differing characteristics possessed by all the
elements of the category
• Classification, is the process of grouping data into
sequences according to their common
characteristics, which separate them into different
but related parts
 Frequency Table

FREQUENCY TABLE A grouping of qualitative data into mutually

exclusive classes showing the number of observations in each
class.
 Frequency Distribution

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION A grouping of data into mutually

A Frequency
exclusive classes showing the number of observations in each
class.
 Relative Class Frequencies

• Class frequencies can be converted to relative class

frequencies to show the fraction of the total number of
observations in each class.
• A relative frequency captures the relationship between
a class total and the total number of observations.
 Frequency Distribution

Class interval: The class

interval is obtained by
subtracting the lower limit
of a class from the lower
limit of the next class.
Class frequency: The number
of observations in each
class.
Class midpoint: A point that
divides a class into two
equal parts. This is the
average of the upper and
lower class limits.
 Frequency Distribution
Class interval: The class
interval is obtained by
subtracting the lower limit
of a class from the lower
limit of the next class.
Class frequency: The number
of observations in each
class.
Class midpoint: A point that
divides a class into two
equal parts. This is the
average of the upper and
lower class limits.
 EXAMPLE – Creating a Frequency Distribution Table

Ms. Kathryn Ball of AutoUSA

wants to develop tables, charts, and
graphs to show the typical selling
price on various dealer lots. The
table on the right reports only the
price of the 80 vehicles sold last
month at Whitner Autoplex.
 Constructing a Frequency Table - Example

• Step 1: Decide on the number of classes.

A useful recipe to determine the number of classes (k) is the “2 to
the k rule.” such that 2k > n.
There were 80 vehicles sold. So n = 80. If we try k = 6, which means
we would use 6 classes, then 26 = 64, somewhat less than 80. Hence, 6
is not enough classes. If we let k = 7, then 27 128, which is greater than
80. So the recommended number of classes is 7.

• Step 2: Determine the class interval or width.

The formula is: i  (H-L)/k where i is the class interval, H is the
highest observed value, L is the lowest observed value, and k is
the number of classes.
($35,925 - $15,546)/7 = $2,911
Round up to some convenient number, such as a multiple of 10 or 100.
Use a class width of $3,000
 Constructing a Frequency Table - Example

• Step 3: Set the individual class limits

Constructing a Frequency Table

• Step 4: Tally the vehicle selling

prices into the classes.

• Step 5: Count the number of

items in each class.
 Relative Frequency Distribution
To convert a frequency distribution to a relative frequency
distribution, each of the class frequencies is divided by the
total number of observations.
 Graphic Presentation of a Frequency
Distribution
• The presentation of quantitative data by graphs and
charts are termed as graphical presentation.
• It gives the reader a nice overview of the essential
features of the data. Graphs are designed to give an
intuitive feeling of the data at a glance.
• Therefore graphs:
– Should be self-explanatory
– Must have title
– Must have labeled axis
– Should mention unit of observation
– Should be simple & clean
 Advantages of Graph Representation
• It is easy to read
• It is easy to understand by all.
• It shows relationship between two or more sets of
observations.
• It is universally applicable
• It is attractive in representation
• It helps in proper estimation, evaluation, and interpretation
of the characteristics of items and individuals
• It has more lasting effect on brain
• It simplifies complex data
• It indicates trend, and therefore, helps in forecasting.
 Disadvantages of Graph Representation

• It is time consuming.
• Finer details may be lost during preparation
• It represents only approximate values.
 Line Graphs
• A line chart or line graph is a type of chart which displays
information as a series of data points called ‘markers’ connected
by straight line segments.
• These are drawn on the plane paper by plotting the data
concerning one variable on the horizontal x-axis (abscissa) and
other variable of data on y-axis (ordinate). Which intersect at a
point called origin.
• With the help of such graphs the effect of one variable upon
another variable during and experimental study may be clearly
demonstrated.
• According to data for corresponding X, Y values (in pairs), we will
find a pint on the graph paper. The points thus generated are then
jointed by pieces of straight lines successfully. The figure thus
formed is called line diagram or graph.
 Example
• In the experimental sciences, data collected
from experiments are often visualized by a
graph. For example, if one were to collect
data on the speed of a body at certain
points in time, one could visualize the data
by a data table such as the following:

Elapsed Time
Speed (m s−1)
(s)
0 0
1 3
2 7
3 12
4 20
5 30
6 45
 Bar Diagram:
• A bar diagram is a graph on which the data are represented in
the form of bar and it is useful in comparing qualitative or
quantitative data of discrete type.
• It consists of a number of equally spaced rectangular areas with
equal width and originate from a horizontal base line (x-axis)
• The length of the bar is proportional to the value it represents. It
should be seen that the bars are neither too short nor too long.
• They are shaded or colored suitably.
• The mars may be vertical or horizontal in a bar diagram. If the
bare are placed horizontally, it is called horizontal bar diagram,
when bares are placed vertically it is called a vertical bar
diagram.
• It is used with discrete qualitative variables and provides a visual
comparison of figures.
 Types of Bar Diagram
• There are three types of bar diagram
• Simple bar diagram
• Multiple or grouped bar diagram
• Component bar subdivided bar diagram.
 Simple bar chart:
• Represent one type of data (variable).
• Following is an example of bar chart which shows educational
status of certain area.
 Multiple Bar charts:
• Such charts are useful for direct comparison
between two or more sets of data. The
technique of drawing such a chart is same as
that of a single bar chart with a difference that
each set of data is represented in different
shades or colors on the same scale. An index
explaining shades or colors must be given.
 Example:
Draw a multiple bar chart to represent the import and export of Canada
(values in $) for the years 1991 to 1995.

Years Imports Exports

1991 7930 4260

1992 8850 5225

1993 9780 6150

1994 11720 7340

1995 12150 8145

 Component bar chart:
• Sub-divided or component bar chart is used to represent
data in which the total magnitude is divided into different
or components.
• In this diagram, first we make simple bars for each class
taking total magnitude in that class and then divide
these simple bars into parts in the ratio of various
components. This type of diagram shows the variation in
different components within each class as well as
between different classes. Different shades or colours
are used to distinguish the various components and
should be given with the diagram. It is also known as
staked chart.
 Example:
The table below shows the quantity in hundred kgs of Wheat, Barley and
Oats produced on a certain form during the years 1991 to 1994.

Years Wheat Barley Oats Total

1991 34 18 27 79

1992 43 14 24 81

1993 43 16 27 86

1994 45 13 34 92
Graphic Presentation of a Frequency Distribution

The three commonly used graphic forms are:

• Histograms
• Frequency polygons
• Cumulative frequency distributions
 Histogram
• It is the most common form of diagrammatic
representation of grouped frequency
distribution of both continuous and
discontinuous type, in which the frequencies
are represented in the forms of bars. The area
and more especially the height of each
rectangle is proportional to the frequency.
 Working Procedure:
• Convert the data in exclusive series from inclusive series.
(Make class boundaries if classes do not coincide;
discontinuous class interval)
• Take class intervals (class boundaries) and plot in x-axis.
• Take two extra class intervals one below and one above the
given grouped intervals.
• Plot separate rectangles for each class interval. The base of
each rectangle is the width of the class interval and the
height is the respective frequency of that class.
• Frequencies are plotted on y-axis.
 Histogram

HISTOGRAM A graph in which the classes are marked on the horizontal

axis and the class frequencies on the vertical axis. The class frequencies
are represented by the heights of the bars and the bars are drawn
adjacent to each other.
Histogram Using Excel
 Frequency Polygon
• A frequency polygon also
shows the shape of a
distribution and is similar to a
histogram.

• It consists of line segments

connecting the points formed
by the intersections of the class
midpoints and the class
frequencies.
• Working procedure:
• The upper limits of the classes
are represented along x-axis.
• The cumulative frequency of a
particular class is taken along
the y-axis.
 Histogram Versus Frequency Polygon

• Both provide a quick picture of the main characteristics of the data

(highs, lows, points of concentration, etc.)
• The histogram has the advantage of depicting each class as a
rectangle, with the height of the rectangular bar representing the
number in each class.
• The frequency polygon has an advantage over the histogram. It
allows us to compare directly two or more frequency distributions.
Cumulative Frequency Distribution
Cumulative Frequency Distribution
 Pie Chart
• It is a circular graph whose area is subdivided into
sectors by radii in such a way that the areas of the
sectors are proportional to the angles at the centre.
• The area of the circle represents the total value and the
different sectors of the circle represent the different
parts.
• It is generally used for comparing the relation between
the various components of a value and between
components and the total value.
• The data is expressed as percentage. Each component it
expressed as percentage of the total value.
 Working procedure:
• Plot a circle of an appropriate size. The angle of a
circle total is 360o.
• Convert the given value of the components of an
item in percentage of the total value of the item.
• Value of component
– Area = x 360
– Total value of item
– It the pie chart largest sector remains at the top and other
in sequence running clockwise.
– Measure with protector, the points on a circle representing
the size of each sector. Label each sector for identification.
 Pie Charts

PIE CHART A chart that shows the proportion or percent that

each class represents of the total number of frequencies.
Pie Chart Using Excel