Ethiopian Institute of Technology- Mekelle

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Electrical Machine
INDUCTION MACHINE 3

Parameter of the equivalent circuit, torque equation, stall &

starting torque, efficiency, torque-speed curves, Power balance
equation, Torque/speed characteristics, Computation and, circle
diagram,

Darge Meressa (Electrical Power Eng.)

Electrical Power Engineering Stream
 INTRODUCTION

• Poly phase induction machines can work as an induction

generator and motor. However, due to its unsatisfactory
performance, induction generator’s application is limited.
• In general, induction machine consists of stator and rotor
with their respective windings and a small air gap
between them.
• The air gap between stator and rotor should be as small
as is mechanically possible; this is
- to reduce leakage flux between stator and rotor
- to lead to better operating power factor of the
induction machine.
IM Const.
 4.1 Induction Motor Speed
• So, the IM will always run at a speed lower than the synchronous speed
• In order to induce an Torque in the rotor, the rotor must move slower than
the SS. If the rotor were to somehow turn at SS, the Torque could not be
induced in the rotor and therefore the rotor would stop. However, if the rotor
stopped or even if it slowed significantly, an EMF would once again be induced
in the rotor bars and it would begin rotating at a speed less than the SS. The
relationship between the rotor speed and the SS is called the Slip or:
• The difference between the motor speed and the synchronous speed is called
the Slip

nslip nsync  nm

Where nslip= slip speed

nsync= speed of the magnetic field
nm = mechanical shaft speed of the motor 4
 The Slip

nsync  nm
s
nsync
Where s is the slip
Notice that : if the rotor runs at synchronous speed
s=0
if the rotor is stationary
s=1
Slip may be expressed as a percentage by multiplying the above
eq. by 100, notice that the slip is a ratio and doesn’t have units

5
 4.2 Frequency
• When the rotor is stationary, the frequency of the rotor current is
the same as the supply frequency. But when the rotor starts
revolving, then the frequency depends upon the relative speed or
on slip-speed.
• The frequency of the voltage induced in the rotor is given by

P n
fr 
120
P (ns  nm )
fr 
120
P sns
fr  sf e
120
f r s f e
7
 4.3 Torque
• While the input to the induction motor is
electrical power, its output is mechanical power
and for that we should know some terms and
quantities related to mechanical power
• Any mechanical load applied to the motor shaft
will introduce a Torque on the motor shaft. This
torque is related to the motor output power and
the rotor speed
Pout 2 nm
 load  N .m m  rad / s
m and 60
9
Example 1. A 3-phase, 50 Hz induction motor has a full-load speed of 1440 r.p. m.
For this motor, calculate the following:(a) number of poles ; (b) full-load slip and
rotor frequency ;(c) speed of stator field with respect to (i) stator structure and
(ii) rotor structure and or(d) speed of rotor field with respect to (i) rotor structure
(ii) stator structure and (iii) stator field. For parts (c) and (d), answer should be
given in rpm and rad /sec.
Solution. (a) The use of full-load speed of 1440 rpm as synchronous speed gives
120 50 1
120  f 1 120 50 P 4 poles
NS  Or 1440  1440 6
P P

Since the number of poles must be even and a whole

number, the induction motor must have 4 poles. Note that an
induction motor runs at a speed, a little less than
synchronous speed.
 (b)Synchronous 120 f1 120 50
speed,
NS   1500 r.p.m.
P 4
N s  N 1500  1440
Slip, S  0.04
Ns 1500

Rotor frequency, f 2 Sf1 0.04 50 2 Hz

(c) (i) Speed of stator field with respect to stator structure

 N S 1500rpm
2 N S 2 1500
S   150.08 rad / s
60 60
 (ii) Speed of stator field w.r.t. revolving rotor structure
= 1500  1440 = 60
rpm
2 60
 6.283 rad / s
60
(d) (i) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. rotor structure

120 ( rotor frequency )


poles
120 2
 60 r.p.m. 6.283 rad / s
4

(ii) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. stator structure

=(Mechanical speed of rotor) + (Speed of rotor field w.r.t rotor
structure)
= 1440 + 60 =1500 rpm = 150.08 rad/s.
iii) Since both the stator and rotor fields are rotating at
synchronous speed of 1500 rpm with respect to stator
structure, speed of rotor field with respect to stator field is
zero. Thus the stator and rotor fields are stationary with
respect to each other.
 4.4 Equivalent Circuit Model

Stator Rotor
Air-gap

4.4.1Stator Equivalent Circuit

R1 X1

V1 Rc Xm E1

14
Where:
V1 = per-phase terminal voltage
R1 = per-phase stator winding resistance
X1 = per-phase stator leakage reactance
E1 = Counter EMF (generated by the air gap flux)
X­m = ­per-phase stator magnetizing reactance
Rc = per-phase stator core loss resistance
In an analysis of an induction motor, the equivalent circuit can be
simplified further by omitting the shunt reaction value, jx. The core
losses associated with this value can be subtracted from the motor
Power and Torque when the friction, windage and stray losses are
deducted. The simplified circuit for the stator then becomes:
 4.4.2 Rotor Equivalent Circuit
SX2 Although the magnitude and phase
sE 2 angle of I2 are the same in Eqs.
I2  (1)and (2), there is a significant
R2  jsX 2
SE2 R2 difference between these two
2 equations and the circuits (Figure (a)
P2  I 2 R2
and (b) they represent. The current
I2 in Eq.(1) is at slip frequency f2,
where as I2 in Equation (2) is at line
frequency f1. In Eq.(1) the rotor
X2 E2 leakage reactance SX2 varies with
I2 
( R2 / s )  jX 2 speed but resistance R2 remains
R2 fixed, whereas in Eq.(2) the
E2 S 2 R2 P2 resistance R2/s varies with speed but
P I 2 
S S the leakage reactance X2 remains
unaltered. The per-phase power
associated with the equivalent circuit
17
of Figure (b).
Note that the equivalent circuit of Figure above (b) is at the stator frequency, and
therefore this is the rotor equivalent circuit as seen from the stator. The power in in
the above Eq. therefore represents the power that crosses the air gap and thus
includes the rotor copper loss as well as the mechanical power developed,
Equation (above) can be rewritten as . X2
 R2 
P  Pag I 2 2  R2  ( 1  s
 S  R2
R2
I 22 E2
S
R2
1  S 
R2 S
2
P mech I 2 ( 1  S)
S
 (1  S) Pag
1 S
 .P2
S
and
P2  I 2 2 R 2  SPag
Thus
Pag : P2 :Pmech 1 : S : 1  S
 4.4.3 Complete Equivalent Circuit
• Now as we managed to solve the induced
voltage and different frequency problems, we
can combine the stator and rotor circuits in one
equivalent circuit
I2
R1 X1 I 2'  X 2' a 2 X 2
a
I1 Io
Ic Im

V1 E1 Rc Xm E '
2 aE2 E1 R2' a 2 R2

S S

Pag
19
 4.4.4 Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
Rth Xth X2
Xm
Vth  V1
R 1
2
 ( X1  X m ) 2 
1
2

R2
Vth
S 2 2
Where If R  ( X 1  X m )
1

as is usually the case

Xm
Pag Vth  V1
X1  X m
20

Vth  K th V1
The Thevenin impedance is

jX m ( R1  jX 1 )
Z th 
R1  j ( X 1  X m )
Rth  jX th
2
 Xm 
R th   R 1
 X1  X m 
 K 2 th R 1

Xth  X1
 4.5 Performance Characteristics Torque
33331

The equivalent circuits derived in the preceding section

can be used to predict the performance characteristics of
the induction machine. The important performance,
characteristics in the steady state are the efficiency,
power factor, current, starting torque maximum (or
pull-out) torque, and so forth
The mechanical torque developed Tmech per phase is given
by

2 R2
Pmech Tmech .  mech I 2 . (1  S )
S
Where, mech ( 1  S ) syn
Ns
 2 ( 1  s )
60

120 f
 syn  x 2
P .60
2
I 2 R2
Tmech . syn  pag
S
1
Tmech  .Pag
 syn

1 2 R2
 I2
 syn S
From Thevenin equivalent circuit we have :
2
1 Vth R2
Tmech  . .
 syn R2 2
( Rth  )  ( X th  X 2 )2 S
S
The torque-speed characteristic is shown in Figure below At
low values of slip,

R2' R '
( Rth  )  ( X th  X 2' ) and 2  Rth
S S
T

2
1 V th
Tmech  . .S
 syn R' 2 Tmax

TSt NS
N
0 STmax 0 S
1
24
The linear torque-speed relationship is evident in Figure
above near the synchronous speed. Note that if the
approximate equivalent circuits are used in,Vth should replaced
by V1. At larger values of slip,

'
R
Rth   X th  X 2'
2

S
and
'
1 Vth R2
Tmech  . 2
.
 syn ( X th  X ' 2 ) S
The torque varies almost inversely with slip near S=1, as
seen from below) also indicates that at a particular speed (i.e.
a fixed value of s) the torque varies as the square of the supply
voltage Vth (hence V1).
T

N
NS
 Maximum Torque
• An expression for maximum torque can be obtained by setting .
Differentiating above for Tmech with respect to slip s and
equating the result to zero gives the following condition for
maximum torque.
• Maximum torque occurs when the power transferred to R2/s is
maximum.
• This condition occurs when R2/s equals the magnitude of the
impedance RTH + j (XTH + X2)( impedance-matching principle )
R2 2
 RTH  ( X TH  X 2 ) 2
sTmax

R2
sTmax 
2
RTH  ( X TH  X 2 ) 2

The slip at maximum torque is directly proportional to the

rotor resistance R2 27
 Maximum Torque
• The corresponding maximum torque of an
induction motor equals

1  2
3VTH 
 max   
2s  RTH  RTH
2
 ( X TH  X 2 ) 2 
 

The maximum torque is independent of R2

28
 Maximum Torque
Rotor resistance can be increased by inserting
external resistance in the rotor of a wound-rotor
induction motor.
The value of the maximum torque remains
unaffected but the speed at which it occurs can
be controlled.

29
 Maximum Torque

TSt
TSt R2
increasing
TSt

NS

Effect of rotor resistance on torque-speed characteristic 30

Complete Speed-Torque c/c

31
 Efficiency
• The power loss in the stator windings is = P1 3I12 R 1

• Power lost in the resistance of the rotor circuit =

P2 3I 22 R 2
• For a 3 machine the power input to the stator is Pin =3V1 I1 Cos 1

Pout

Pin

• The efficiency is highly dependent on slip. If all losses are neglected except those in
the resistance of the rotor circuit,
Pag = Pin
P2 = sPag Pout
 ideal  1  S
Pout = Pmech = Pag (1S) Pin
• and the ideal efficiency is
 Stator Rotor Friction &
core loss core loss Windage Loss
η Ideal
efficiency,
Pag 1-S

Pmech 1

Pin 3V1I1Cosθ1 Actual

Pout (shaft) efficiency
0.5

Stator Rotor 0 Ns
copper loss copper loss N

33
 No-Load Test
V Rn1 
Pn1
Z n1  n1 2
I n1 I n1
U A1 W1
2 2
V X n1  Z nl  Rn1
3-Phase
V A2 IM
PRot m( Pnl  I nl2 R1 )

W A3 W2

R1 X1

The motor is allowed to spin freely

INL
The only load on the motor is the
friction and windage losses, so all VNL
Xm

Pconv is consumed by mechanical

losses
The slip is very small
34
 Blocked-Rotor Test

• In this test, the rotor is locked or blocked so

that it cannot move, a voltage is applied to
the motor, and the resulting voltage, current
and power are measured.
R1 X1 X2 V
Z br  br
I br
P
Xm Rbr  br
R2 2
Vbr I br
S

X br  Z br 2  Rbr 2

35
 3.8 Speed Control of Induction Motors

A. By changing the number of poles and (cage

IM)
B. By varying the line (input) frequency. (cage
IM) 120 f
Ns 
p
C. By varying the input voltage (cage and wound IM)
B. By varying the rotor resistance (wound IM)

N (1  s ) N s
36
 4.6 Starting of Induction Motors

• Starting of Squirrel-cage Motors

A. Direct-on-line (across-the-line) starting.
B. Stator resistor (or reactor) starting
C. Autotransformer starting
D. Star-Delta Method
• Starting of Wound-Rotor Motors
A. Rotor Resistance
i. Decreases its starting current
ii. Increases its starting torque (for a suitable external
resistance) and
iii. Improves its starting power factor.
37
Stator resistor (or reactor) starting
Autotransformer starting
Star-Delta Method
TDPT(triple pole double throw switch
 4.7 Induction motor circle diagram
• Circle diagram of IM is graphical representation of its equivalent circuit. Any
information which can be obtained from the equivalent circuit can be obtained from
the circle diagram.
• In a circle diagram, approximate equivalent circuit is used and despite this, it gives
sufficiently accurate results for practical purposes.

R1 X1 X’2
I1
Io I’2

V1 Rc Xm R2'
S

Pag

Approximate equivalent circuit diagram of IM

• Circle diagram provides a complete view of how operating

characteristics are affected by changes in the machine
parameters like voltage, frequency, etc.
 • The out put parameters of IM are speed and torque.
The important performance characteristics are:
- efficiency and slip
- power factor
- current (No-load, starting and steady state)
- rated torque
- starting torque
- maximum (or pull-out) torque
- losses and
- so forth.

These operating characteristics during starting, steady state, and braking are governed
mainly by:-
- rotor resistance,
- air gap length, and
- shape of stator and rotor slots
Voltage V1 applied to the equivalent circuit is;

 r2  
V1 I 2   r1    j x1  x2 
 s 
 • It can be re-written as;

r2
r1 
V1 s
 j I 2  jI 2
x1  x2 x1  x2
From here

V1
 j lags V1 by 90 0 and
x1  x2
r2
r1 
 jI 2 s lags I by 90 0 and I lags V by 
2 2 1 2
x1  x2

The current I2 lags V1 by an angle;

1 x1  x2
 2 tan
r2
r1 
s
 Induction motor circle diagram

Effect of shunt branch included

Shunt branch neglected

Recall phasor diagram of no-load transformer

O’
• To estimate complete performance of an induction motor, its circle
diagram is drawn in the figure below.
a) Draw OX and OY perpendicular to each other
b) Draw OO’ corresponding to no load current I0 and power factor angle

Im
 0  tan  1
I1
c) Draw O’R parallel to OX
d) Draw OD corresponding to no load current Isc and power factor angle

Rs
 sc cos 1

e) Join O’D,
Zs
f) Draw the right angle bisector of O’D, such that it intersect O’R at C. The
pint C is the centre of circle diagram which is now drawn with O’C as
radius. The requisite circle will be O’DR.
g) Drop DE perpendicular to O’R and divide it in the ratio of
effective rotor to stator resistance, i.e.
DE rr '

GE rs

h) Join O’G’ to obtain torque line while O’D is the output line.
i) Since the circle diagram is drawn with phase values, so all the
characteristics will be obtained in terms of phase values. So, for
3 phase machine, power will be multiplied by 3. since voltage E s
is per
1 cmphase, soper
= x amperes thephase
power scale
current scale will be
1 cm = x Es watt per phase

Where, various performance characteristics can be calculated as

below;
j) Join O’D, it is output line.
k) With the output known to scale, draw FH equal to the machine
rating. Then ON will indicate the full load current and
corresponding power factor angel θ.
l) Extend NJ perpendicular to OX cutting at L, with O’R at K and torque line
at J.

m) To the scale, HJ is rotor copper loss, JK is stator copper loss full load.

n) Full load slip is

HJ
NJ so efficiency =
o) To the scale NL is total input,
NH
p) To the scale DE is starting torque. NL

q) For pull out torque, the right bisector of O’G cuts the circle diagram at B,
from B drop BB1 perpendicular to the X line gives pull out torque to
scale.
IM circle diagram. Stator current locus shown by full line (Q,N,D,S,R) is for IM; and that
shown by dotted line (R,M,Q) is induction generator.
Circle diagram from no-load and block rotor test.
 4.8 Design aspect
• In electrical engineering, there are two types of fields to store energy.
Electrostatic and Electromagnetic.

• The stored energy can be used to produce mechanical force and even
movement in rotating electrical machines.

• In electromagnetic machines, the magnetic effect of the electric current is

used to produce the force and the corresponding maximum energy density in
the air-gap is about 1MJ/m3. Thus, a small current can produce large values of
mechanical force.

• Modern rotating electrical machines are designed with the following circuits.

- Electrical circuit – It consists windings in stator and rotor

and produces the emf and develops the required
mechanical force.
 - Dielectric circuit – consists of insulating materials used to
isolate two conductors and winding from the core.
- Magnetic materials – consists of stator and rotor magnetic
cores and the air gap.
- Thermal circuits - since all losses produce heat, it is
provided to cool the machine to keep its temperature
within permissible limit.
- Mechanical parts – To keep the working circuits in
determined position.

1. Technical design limitations

- Saturation – Magnetic materials used get saturated and require higher excitation for high
flux density.
- Insulation – As it is obvious, insulation material used has to withstand electrical,
mechanical and thermal stresses produced in the machine.
- Efficiency – To reduce cost of operation, the machine should be highly efficient.
- power factor – a high power factor machine requires less current and less conductor, so
less cost for the same power.
 - Mechanical parts – mechanical parts should be simple and
economical to provide the requirements of performance,
reliability and durability. It has to withstand all mechanical
stresses.

2. Main dimensions – Usually the diameter of the armature or stator

bore D and length of its core L is defined as main dimensions of a
given machine.
Loadings – there are two types of loadings.
i) Magnetic loading – The total flux in the air gap of the
machine is called magnetic loading. For a P pole machine
total magnetic loading is:
P webers -
, Where,  = flux per pole ,wb
ii) Electrical loading – The total number of ampere conductors
around the armature stator. For Z number of total conductors total
electric loading is: -
I z Z amperes , Where, Iz = current per conductor, amps
• Specific magnetic loading: -

P 
 web / m 2  ;  pole pitch
DL L

• Specific electric loading: -

3. Output equation:- The relation between the main dimensions, specific loadings and
speed is called the output equation.
•Example: - Consider the case of power developed in DC machine in KW = P;
Pt = generated emf x armature current x10-3 = EIa x 10-3
We know that, induce emf

E Zn
a
   Ia 
Pt Zn I a 10   Z  n 10  3  I z Z n 10  3
3

a  a 
Pt = (total mag. loading) x (total elec. loading) x (speed in rps) x 10 -3

This concept is true for AC machines as well

• Where, P – No. of poles
a – parallel path of current

Economical utilization of active materials is determined by the specific loadings.

In terms of specific loadings, the output equation seems: -

Q (DLBav ) (Dae ) n 10  3 ( 2 Bav ae 10  3 ) D 2 Ln

Ce D 2 Ln; Ce  2 Bav ae 10  3  output coefficien t
• For m phase AC machine, the output equation will be,
n
E ph 4.44 fN ph K w 4.44 N ph K w
2
Q mE ph I ph 10  3
 n 
m 4.44 s N ph K w  I ph 10  3
 2 
1.11K w  2mI ph N ph ns 10  3
Q 1.11K w DLBav Dae ns 10  3
1.11 2 Bav K w 10  3 D 2 Lns  Ce D 2 Lns
4. Size of the machine
• Considering the output equation, it will give volume of the machine as: -

 2 Q Hence, the size the machine for a particular rating

D L m3 depends on the choice of speed and output coefficient.
4 C e ns
KW
However, Q 
 cos
The power, speed, power factor and efficiency are specified for the
required load condition. Therefore, to calculate D2L, the output
coefficient Ce = (1.1KwBavae x 10-3) is decided by the choice of the
following factors.

a. Average flux density –

i) power factor – the value of air-gap flux density should be small to reduce the value of
magnetizing current and improve power factor. Its value should not produce saturation
in any part of the magnetic circuit.
 ii) Iron loss – A large value of air gap flux density will increase iron loss and decrease
efficiency.
iii) Overload capacity – A high value of average flux density will give large flux per pole.
So for same voltage, the number of turns will be small, there by less number of turns as
well as less leakage reactance. This will result in maximum value of output or higher
overload capacity. ( for most induction machines, overload capacity is twice rated value).

b. Specific electric loading –

i) temperature rise – A large value of ampere conductors per meter (a e) will need a large
amount of copper in the machine. This will lead to a large copper losses and
temperature rise of conductors used.

ii) Voltage – For high voltage machines insulation will be large, so copper space will be less,
which may result to low value of ae.

iii) Overload capacity – A large value of ae will need large number of copper conductors, so
there will be large value of leakage inductance. This will lead to low value of overload
capacity. So a low value of ae is selected to get large overload capacity.
 c. Efficiency and power factor –

The efficiency of a small machines is around 0.8 and is increases with the size
of machine. For large machines it may become 0.9. Similarly, power factor
for small machines is around 0.78 and for large machines 0.9.

5. Stator winding
a) turns per phase – Assuming the motor is wound for DELTA operation, the phase
voltage is the same as line voltage.

Flux per pole

DL
 Bav
P
Stator voltage per phase Es 4.44 fm N s K ws
Es
Stator turns per phase N s 
4.44 fm K ws
b) Stator conductors
Q
Stator current per phase Is 
3E s
 Area of each stator conductor
Is
a s  mm 2
s
Where,  current density in A / mm2 3 to 5 A / mm2

C) stator slots - The number of stator slots selected are based

on the following considerations.
i) tooth pulsation loss – Open slots give large variation of
reluctance in the air-gap. Thus slots are selected to give
minimum variation in the air-gap reluctance and hence less
tooth pulsation loss and noise. This is achieved by using large
number of narrow slots.
ii) Leakage reactance – A large number of slots will have large
insulation and thus reluctance path to leakage flux will be
more, so leakage reactance is reduced. This helps to increase
overload capacity.
iii) Mechanical difficulties – The large number slots will give
small slot pitch and if tooth width is half the slot pitch, it will
result in weak magnetic structure. Thus the laminations need
mechanical support, which may cause obstruction in ventilation
circuits.
iv) Cost – Large number of slots will need large number of coils to be
wound which will increase labour cost too.

d) Area of stator slot – With the known number of conductors per

slot, it is so framed as to accommodate the copper and insulation
area as well. e.t.c.
• Rotor Design

i) Air-gap length – The length of the air gap depends upon the following
factors.
- Power factor – The larger air gap length requires large mmf, large
magnetising current and gives poor power factor.
- Overload capacity – Large air-gap length results in reduced leakage
reactance. The decrease in leakage reactance will increase the overload
capacity of IM.
( please explain how this occurs)

Overload capacity is the ratio of max. power output to

power output at full load.

- Unbalanced magnetic pull - With small air gap length, a small

eccentricity in the shaft produce large irregularity in the air gap length
which will produce more unbalanced magnetic pull and bending. To
avoid this defect, the air-gap length should be large.
- Thus for good power factor, the air-gap should be as small as
mechanically possible. However, for large overload capacity, better
cooling, noise and less unbalanced magnetic pull, large air gap is used.