Measurement and Data

Collection concepts

Unit-3
 Sampling Concepts
• Population
• Element
• Sampling frame
• Sample
• Sampling unit
• Sampling
• Census (or complete enumeration)
 Characteristics of a Good
Sample Design
• It must result in a truly representative sample.
• It must be viable in the context of funds
available for the research study.
• It must control the bias in a better way.
• The sample study can be applied, in general,
for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.
 Sampling Design Process
 Step 1 : Define the population
 Elements
 Step 2 : Identify the sampling frame
 Step 3 : Specify the sampling unit
 Step 4 : Specify the sampling method
 Step 5 : Determine the sample size (n)
 Step 6 : Specify the sampling plan
 Step 7 : Select the sample
 What is Sampling?
Sampling is a process in which the fixed numbers of observations are taken randomly from a
larger population A technique which is fundamental for behavioral research is known as
sampling and without using it, research work is not possible

According to Davis S Fox

"In the social science, it is not possible to collect data from every
respondent relevant to our study but only from some fractional part is
called sampling"

For example, for taking decision about to purchase or not to purchase the fruits, a fruit
merchant inspects randomly only a few of them rather than examining each and every fruit
The important objective of sampling is to obtain maximum information of the
population under study using minimum of money labour and time
Probability Sampling:

Probability sampling refers to the selection of a

sample from a population, when this election is
based on the principle of randomization, that is,
random selection or chance. Probability
sampling is more complex, more time-
consuming and usually more costly than non-
probability sampling.12
 Simple random sampling

Simple random sampling is a statistical method in

which everyone in a population has an equal chance of
being selected into a sample The sample represents a
smaller and more manageable portion of the people that
can be studied and analyzed It’s a fundamental technique
to gather data and make inferences about a population
 Simple Random Sampling Methods
Researchers follow these methods to select a simple
random sample:
1. They prepare a list of all the population members
initially, and each member is marked with a specific
number ( for example, if there are nth members, then
they will be numbered from 1 to N).
2. Researchers from this population choose random
samples using random number tables and random
number generator software. Researchers prefer
random number generator software, as no human
interference is necessary to generate samples.
 Simple random sampling
Method of lottery
Using the lottery method is one of the oldest ways
and is a mechanical example of random sample.
Researchers draw numbers from the box randomly to
choose samples. In this method, the researcher gives
each member of the population a number.
 Use of random numbers
Using random numbers is an alternative method that
also involves numbering the population. A numbered
table similar to the one below can help with this
sampling technique.
Use of random numbers
 Simple Random Sampling Formula

Consider that a hospital has 1000 staff members and

must allocate a night shift to 100 members. All their
names will be put in a bucket to be randomly
selected. Since each person has an equal chance of
being selected. Since we know the population size
(N) and sample size (n), the calculation can be as
follows:=n/N
=100/1000
=10%
 Advantages of Simple Random
Sampling
1.It is a fair sampling method, and if applied
appropriately, it helps reduce any bias involved
compared to any other sampling method.
2. Since it involves a large sample frame, it is usually
easy to pick a smaller sample size from the existing
larger population.
3. The person conducting the research doesn’t need to
have prior knowledge of the data he/ she is collecting.
One can ask a question to gather the researcher need
not be a subject expert.
 Systematic sampling

Systematic sampling is a statistical method used to

select a sample from a larger population
systematically and randomly. It is a widespread
technique for researchers and analysts who want to
gather data from a large population without
surveying every individual. This method is
beneficial when the population is large, diverse, or
hard to reach.
 What are the steps to form a sample using
the systematic sampling technique?
Step one: Develop a defined structural audience to start working on the
sampling aspect.
Step two: As a researcher, figure out the ideal size of the sample, i.e.,
how many people from the entire population to choose to be a part of the
sample.
Step three: Once you decide the sample size, assign a number to every
member of the sample.
Step four: Define the interval of this sample. This will be the standard
distance between the elements.

For example, the sample interval should be 10, which is the result of the
division of 5000 (N= size of the population) and 500 (n=size of the
sample).
 Systematic sampling example

For instance, if a local NGO is seeking to form a

systematic sample of 500 volunteers from a
population of 5000, they can select every 10th person
in the population to build a sample systematically.

Here are the advantages:  It’s extremely simple and

convenient for the researchers to create, conduct,
analyze samples.  As there’s no need to number each
member of a sample, it is better for representing a
population in a faster and simpler manner.
 Stratified random sampling
Stratified random sampling is a widely used statistical
technique in which a population is divided into different
subgroups, or strata, based on some shared characteristics.
The purpose of stratification is to ensure that each stratum
in the sample and to make inferences about specific
population subgroups.

Let’s consider a situation where a research team seeks opinions about

religion among various age groups. Instead of collecting feedback
from 326,044,985 U.S citizens, random samples of around 10000 can
be selected for research. These 10000 citizens can be divided into
groups according to age, i.e., 18-29, 30-39, 40-49, 50-59, and 60 and
above.
Following is a classic stratified random sampling example:

Let’s say 100 (Nh) students of a school having 1000 (N)

students were asked questions about their favorite subject.
It’s a fact that the students of the 8th grade will have
different subject preferences than the students of the 9th
grade. For the survey to deliver precise results, the ideal
manner is to divide each step into various strata. Here’s a
table of the number of students in each grade:
 Calculate the sample of each grade
using the formula:
Grade Number of students (n)
5 150 Stratified Sample (n5) =
6 250 Stratified Sample (n6) =
7 300 Stratified Sample (n7) =
8 200 Stratified Sample (n8) =
9 100 Stratified Sample (n9) =
 Case Problem

lustration: A survey is planned to analyse the

perception of people towards their own religious
practices. The population consists of various religions,
viz., Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Jain, assuming a
total of 10,000. Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh and
Jains consists of 6,000, 2,000, 1,000, 500 and 500
respectively. Determine the sample size of each
stratum by applying proportionate stratified sampling,
if the sample size required is 200.
Solution: Total population, N = 10,000

Population in the strata of Hindus N1 = 6,000

Population in the strata of Muslims N₂ = 2,000

Population in the strata of Christians N3=1,000

Population in the strata of Sikhs N4= 500

Population in the strata of Jains N5 = 500

Cluster sampling
Cluster sampling is defined as a sampling
method where the researcher creates
multiple clusters of people from a
population where they are indicative of
homogeneous characteristics and have an
equal chance of being a part of the sample.
 A Comparison Between Cluster and Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling Stratified Sampling
• The sampling unit is a group • The population
consisting of population element itself is the
elements. • sampling
The unit
population is
• The population is divided divided few
into sub-groups
a
into many clusters or sub – strata or each
groups, each with a few ,elements. with
elements. manyon the
• Stratification is done
• Done on the basis of basis of variables under
geographical areas study,.
• It tries to • It aims at securing
heterogeneity secure
within sub- homogeneity within sub-
groups and homogeneity group and heterogeneity
between sub-groups. between sub-groups.
Contd………..
Cluster Sampling Stratified Sampling
• Make a random selection of • It makes a random selection
sub-groups or clusters of elements from each sub-
• The resulting sample group.
give
may a lower of • It yields a higher degree
representativeness
degree of a representative sample
for given sample size. the same sample size.
for
• The sampling error may be • The sampling error will
great be least
• The cost per element • The cost per element
is lower. is higher.
Non Probability Sampling:

Nonprobability sampling is a method of selecting

units from a population using a subjective (i.e.non-
random)method. Since non probability sampling
does not require a complete survey frame, it is a
fast, easy and inexpensive way of obtaining data.
 Convenience sampling
Convenience sampling is a simple and easy way to get
information compared to other sampling methods.
Most of the time, simple and easy go well together.
But you need to know what it is so you know when to
use it and when not to.

It is a type of sampling that doesn’t depend on chance

and is often used in research studies. This sampling
technique involves choosing people who are easy for
the researcher to reach and get in touch with.
 Convenience sampling

For example, a researcher A basic example of a

conducting a study on cancer convenience sampling
survivors’ experiences may method is when
choose to recruit volunteers companies distribute
using social media groups or their promotional
cancer support networks pamphlets and ask
because they are easily
questions at a mall or
accessible and likely to be
interested in the study.
on a crowded street
with randomly selected
participants.
Convenience sampling- Advantages
 Judgmental sampling

Judgmental sampling, also called purposive sampling

or authoritative sampling, is a non-probability
sampling technique in which the sample members are
chosen only on the basis of the researcher’s
knowledge and judgment.
As the researcher’s knowledge is instrumental in
creating a sample in this sampling technique, there are
chances that the results obtained will be highly
accurate with a minimum margin of error.
 When to execute Judgmental Sampling?

Judgmental sampling is most effective in situations where

there are only a restricted number of people in a population
who own qualities that a researcher expects from the target
population. Researchers prefer to implement Judgmental
sampling when they feel that other sampling techniques will
consume more time and that they have confidence in their
knowledge to select a sample for conducting research.

Judgmental or Expert sampling is usually used in situations

where the target population comprises of highly intellectual
individuals who cannot be chosen by using any other
probability
Snowball Sampling:
 Definition
Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is defined
as a non-probability sampling technique in which the
samples have rare traits. This is a sampling technique, in
which existing subjects provide referrals to recruit
samples required for a research study.

For example, if you are studying the level of customer

satisfaction among the members of an elite country club,
you will find it extremely difficult to collect primary data
sources unless a member of the club agrees to have a
direct conversation with you and provides the contact
details of the other members of the club.
 Advantages of Snowball Sampling

1.It’s quicker to find samples: Referrals make it easy and

quick to find subjects as they
come from reliable sources. An additional task is saved for a
researcher, this time can be
used in conducting the study.
2. Cost effective: This method is cost effective as the referrals
are obtained from a primary
data source. It’s is convenient and not so expensive as
compared to other methods.
3. Sample hesitant subjects:
 disadvantages of Snowball Sampling

1. Sampling bias and margin of error: Since people refer those whom
they know and have
similar traits, this sampling method can have a potential sampling
errors and margin of
error. This means a researcher might only be able to reach out to a
small group of people
and may not be able to complete the study with conclusive results.
2. Lack of cooperation: There are fair chances even after referrals,
people might not be
cooperative and refuse to participate in the research studies.
 Quota sampling:

Quota sampling is defined as a non-probability

sampling method in which researchers create
a convenience sample involving individuals that
represent a population. Researchers choose these
individuals according to specific traits or qualities.
They decide and create quotas so that the
market research samples can be useful in collecting
data
 Quota sampling: E.g.

For example, a cigarette company wants to find out

what age group prefers what brand of cigarettes
in a particular city. They apply survey quota on the
age groups of 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51+.
From this information, the researcher gauges the
smoking trend among the population of the city.
 Errors in sampling.
Assume you are a market researcher of a company looking to
introduce a new product to the
market. You must collect data from a sample of potential
customers as part of your research to determine their
preferences and purchasing behavior. But how can you be
sure that the information you get from your sample is
accurate for all of the people who might buy your product?
The idea of sampling error comes into play here.
It is the difference between what a sample has and what the
entire population has. It can
significantly affect how accurate and reliable market research
data is.
 What is a sampling error?
A sampling error occurs when the sample used in the
study does not represent the entire population.
Although sampling errors occur frequently, researchers
always include a margin of error in their
conclusions as a matter of statistical practice.

The margin of error is the amount allowed for a

miscalculation to represent the difference between
the sample and the actual population.
Sampling is a type of analysis where a small
What is a sampling error?
sampling errors

Population specification error

A population specification error occurs when
researchers don’t know precisely who to
survey.
For example, imagine a research study about
kid’s apparel. Who is the right person to
survey? It can be both parents, only the mother,
or the child. The parents make purchase
decisions, but the kids may influence their
choice.
sampling errors
Sample frame error
Sampling frame error occurs when researchers
target the sub-population wrongly while
selecting the sample.
For example, picking a sampling frame from the
telephone white pages book may have
erroneous inclusions because people shift their
cities. Erroneous exclusions occur when
people prefer to un-list their numbers. Wealthy
households may have more than one
connection, thus leading to multiple inclusions.
 Selection of sampling error

Selection error occurs when respondents self-select

themselves to participate in the study.
You can control selection errors by going the extra step
to request responses from the
entire sample. Only interested ones respond.
 Example of sampling error
Let’s say a political party conducts a survey to find out how well-liked
their candidate is before a major election. Instead of picking a random
sample of the whole population to survey, they only ask their own
members. The sample would be skewed since party members may have
extremely different opinions and tastes from the rest of the population.
Party members may care more about their candidate’s ideals
or be more loyal to them.

To avoid these kinds of sampling errors, it is essential to use a sampling

method that is representative of the population being studied, such as
random sampling or stratified random sampling, and to make sure that
the sample size is big enough to give accurate results.
What are the steps to reduce
sampling errors?
 Criteria for good sample

Representativeness: The sample should reflect the characteristics of

the larger population from which it is drawn. This includes
demographics, behaviors, and other relevant traits.

Size: A larger sample size generally increases the reliability of the

results and reduces the margin of error. However, the necessary
sample size depends on the study's goals and the variability within the
population.

Random Selection: Ideally, samples should be selected randomly to

eliminate bias. Random sampling ensures that every member of the
population has an equal chance of being included, leading to more
generalizable findings.
 Criteria for good sample
Diversity: A good sample encompasses a range of
perspectives and characteristics, which helps capture the full
spectrum of the population's views or behaviors.

Absence of Bias: The sample should be free from selection

bias or any factors that might unduly influence the results.
Researchers should be aware of potential biases during the
sampling process.

Relevance: The sample must be relevant to the research

question or hypothesis. Ensuring the sample directly
addresses the objectives of the study is crucial.
Identify the appropriate target population
and sampling frame for various situations
listed below:
a. The regional marketing manager of a beverage
company wants to test market three new flavours
to gauge their acceptance.

b. A manufacturer wants to assess whether

adequate inventories of spare parts are being
maintained by the distributors to prevent shortages
and loss of business.
Identify the appropriate target population
and sampling frame for various situations
listed below:
d. A TV channel wants to determine the viewing habits
of housewives and their programme preferences.

e. A departmental chain such as Food World wants to

determine the shopping behaviour of customers who
use the credit cards.