MODULE III

Heat engine is a machine for converting

heat, developed by burning fuel into useful
work. It can be said that heat engine is
equipment which generates thermal energy
and transforms it into mechanical energy.
 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES

1. Based on combustion of fuel:

a)External combustion engine
b)Internal combustion engine.
2. Based on fuel used
a) Diesel engine b)Petrol engine c)Gas engine
3. Based ignition of fuel
a)Spark ignition engine
b)Compression ignition engine
4. Based on working cycle
a)Four stroke cycle engine
b)Two stroke cycle engine
 Internal combustion Engine Components:
I.C. Engine components shown in figure1 and figure2 are defined as follows:
• Block : Body of the engine containing cylinders, made of cast iron or
aluminium.
• Cylinder : The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons
reciprocate back and forth.
• Head : The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually containing part
of the clearance volume of the combustion chamber.
• Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder between the head and the piston
face where combustion occurs.
– The size of combustion chamber continuously changes from minimum
volume when the piston is at TDC to a maximum volume when the piston
at BDC.
 Continued…..
• Crankshaft : Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to
external systems.
– The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the main
bearings.
– It is rotated by the reciprocating pistons through the connecting rods
connected to the crankshaft, offset from the axis of rotation. This offset
is sometimes called crank throw or crank radius.
• Connecting rod : Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft,
usually made of steel or alloy forging in most engines but may be aluminum in
some small engines.
• Piston rings: Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the piston
and form a sliding surface against the cylinder walls.
 Continued…..
• Camshaft : Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in
the engine cycle, either directly or through mechanical or hydraulic
linkage (push rods, rocker arms, tappets) .
• Push rods : The mechanical linkage between the camshaft and valves on
overhead valve engines with the camshaft in the crankcase.
• Crankcase : Part of the engine block surrounding the crankshaft.
– In many engines the oil pan makes up part of the crankcase
housing.
• Exhaust manifold : Piping system which carries exhaust gases away
from the engine cylinders, usually made of cast iron .
 Continued…..
• Intake manifold :Piping system which delivers incoming air to the
cylinders, usually made of cast metal, plastic, or composite material.
– In most SI engines, fuel is added to the air in the intake manifold
system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor.
– The individual pipe to a single cylinder is called runner.
• Carburetor : A device which meters the proper amount of fuel into the
air flow by means of pressure differential.
– For many decades it was the basic fuel metering system on all
automobile (and other) engines.
• Spark plug : Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI
engine by creating high voltage discharge across an electrode gap.
 I.C. Engine components apart from components
• Exhaust System: Flow system for removing exhaust gases from the
cylinders, treating them, and exhausting them to the surroundings.
– It consists of an exhaust manifold which carries the exhaust gases
away from the engine, a thermal or catalytic converter to reduce
emissions, a muffler to reduce engine noise, and a tailpipe to carry
the exhaust gases away from the passenger compartment.
• Flywheel : Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to
the crank shaft of the engine.
– The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish large
angular momentum that keeps the engine rotating between
power strokes and smooths out engine operation.
 Continued…..
• Fuel injector : A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming
air (SI engines )or into the cylinder (CI engines).
• Fuel pump : Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel
from the fuel tank (reservoir) to the engine.
• Glow plug : Small electrical resistance heater mounted inside the
combustion chamber of many CI engines, used to preheat the chamber
enough so that combustion will occur when first starting a cold engine.
– The glow plug is turn off after the engine is started.
• Starter : Several methods are used to start IC engines. Most are started
by use of an electric motor (starter) geared to the engine flywheel.
Energy is supplied from an electric battery.
 Engine Terminology :
• Figure shows the pressure volume diagram of ideal engine cycle along with
engine terminology as follows:
• Top Dead Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest
point away from the crankshaft.
– Top because this position is at the top of the engines (not always), and
dead because the piston stops as this point. Because in some engines
TDC is not at the top of the
engines(e.g: horizontally opposed engines, radial engines,etc,.) Some
sources call this position Head End Dead Center (HEDC).
– Some source call this point TOP Center (TC).
– When the piston is at TDC, the volume in the cylinder is a minimum
called the clearance volume.
 Continued…..
• Bottom Dead Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to
the crankshaft.
– Some sources call this Crank End Dead Center (CEDC) because it is not always
at the bottom of the engine.Some source call this point Bottom Center (BC).
• Stroke : Distance traveled by the piston from one extreme position to the other : TDC to
BDC or BDC to TDC.
• Bore :It is defined as cylinder diameter or piston face diameter; piston face diameter is
same as cylinder diameter( minus small clearance).
• Swept volume/Displacement volume : Volume displaced by the piston as it travels
through one stroke.
– Swept volume is defined as stroke times bore.
– Displacement can be given for one cylinder or entire engine (one cylinder times
number of cylinders).
 Continued…..
• Clearance volume : It is the minimum volume of the cylinder available
for the charge (air or air fuel mixture) when the piston reaches at its
outermost point (top dead center or outer dead center) during compression
stroke of the cycle.
– Minimum volume of combustion chamber with piston at TDC.
• Compression ratio : The ratio of total volume to clearance volume of the
cylinder is the compression ratio of the engine.
– Typically compression ratio for SI engines varies form 8 to 12
and for CI engines it varies from 12 to 24
 FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE
In four stroke petrol engines the four events
namely
1. Suction stroke
2. Compression stroke
3. Power stroke
4. Exhaust stroke
SUCTION STROKE
During suction stroke inlet valve opens and
the piston moves downward. Then the
mixture of air and fuel are drawn inside the
cylinder. The exhaust valve remains in
closed position during this stroke. The
pressure in the engine cylinder is less than
atmospheric pressure during this stroke
COMPRESSION STROKE
During this stroke the piston moves upward.
Both valves are in closed position. The
mixture of air and fuel taken in the cylinder
is compressed by the upward movement of
the piston. At the end of the compression
stroke the mixture is ignited by a spark plug.
POWER STROKE
After ignition from spark plug, large amount
of heat is generated, causing very high
pressure in the cylinder which pushes the
piston downward. The downward movement
of the piston at this instant is called power
stroke. The connecting rod transmits the
power from piston to the crank shaft and
crank shaft rotates. Mechanical work can be
taped at the rotating crank shaft. Both valves
remain closed during power stroke.
EXHAUST STROKE
During this stroke piston moves upward.
Exhaust valve opens and exhaust gases go out
through exhaust valves opening. All the burnt
gases go out of the engine and the cylinder
becomes ready to receive the fresh charge.
During this stroke inlet valve remains closed.
Thus it is found that out of four
strokes, there is only one power stroke and three
idle strokes in four stroke cycle engine. The
power stroke supplies necessary momentum for
useful work.
FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE
In two stroke cycle engines, the whole sequence
of events i.e., suction, compression, power and
exhaust are completed in two strokes of the
piston i.e. one revolution of the crankshaft.
There is no valve in this type of engine. Gas
movement takes place through holes called
ports in the cylinder. The crankcase of the
engine is air tight in which the crankshaft
rotates.
Upward stroke of the piston (Suction + Compression)

When the piston moves upward it covers two of the

ports, the exhaust port and transfer port, which are
normally almost opposite to each other. This traps the
charge of air- fuel mixture drawn already in to the
cylinder. Further upward movement of the piston
compresses the charge and also uncovers the suction
port. Now fresh mixture is drawn through this port into
the crankcase. Just before the end of this stroke, the
mixture in the cylinder is ignited by a spark plug. Thus,
during this stroke both suction and compression events
are completed.
DOWNWARD STROKE (POWER + EXHAUST)
Burning of the fuel rises the
temperature and pressure of the gases which forces the
piston to move down the cylinder. When the piston
moves down, it closes the suction port, trapping the
fresh charge drawn into the crankcase during the
previous upward stroke. Further downward movement
of the piston uncovers first the exhaust port and then
the transfer port. Now fresh charge in the crankcase
moves in to the cylinder through the transfer port
driving out the burnt gases through the exhaust port.
Special shaped piston crown deflect the incoming
mixture up around the cylinder so that it can help in
driving out the exhaust gases . During the downward
stroke of the piston power and exhaust events are
completed.
 STEAM GENERATOR OR BOILER

 A steam generator or a boiler is defined as a closed

vessel in which water is converted into steam by
burning of fuel in presence of air at desired
temperature, pressure and at desired mass flow rate.
 In case of boiler, any type of fuel burn in presence of
air and form flue gases which are at very high
temperature (hot fluid). The feed water at
atmospheric pressure and temperature enters the
system from other side (cold fluid). Because of
exchange of heat between hot and cold fluid, the
cold fluid (water) temperature raises and it form
steam.
STEAM GENERATOR OR BOILE
FUNCTIONS OF A BOILER
The steam generated is employed for the
following purposes
1. Used in steam turbines to develop
electrical energy
2. Used to run steam engines
3. In the textile industries, sugar mills or in
chemical industries as a cogeneration plant
4. Heating the buildings in cold weather
5. Producing hot water for hot water supply
FIRE TUBE & WATER TUBE BOILERS
 FIRE TUBE BOILER

• A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which

hot gases pass from a fire through one or
more tubes running through a sealed
container of water. The heat of the gases is
transferred through the walls of the tubes
by thermal conduction, heating the water
and ultimately creating steam.
 WATER TUBE BOILER

A high pressure water tube boiler is a type

of boiler in which water circulates in tubes
heated externally by the fire. Fuel is burned
inside the furnace, creating hot gas which
heats water in the steam-generating tubes.
TYPES OF FIRE TUBE BOILERS

 Cornish boiler
 Lancashire boiler
 Locomotive boiler
 Scotch marine boiler
 Admiralty-type direct tube boiler
 Horizontal return tubular boiler
 Immersion fired boiler
 Vertical fire-tube boiler
TYPES OF WATER TUBE BOILER
The Water tube boilers are divided into two types based
on whether the tubes are horizontal or bent as
1. Horizontal straight water tube boilers

 Longitudinal drum
 Cross-drum.

2. Bent tube boilers

 Two drum
 Three drum
 Low head three drum
 four drum.
 STEAM TURBINE
A steam turbine is a device that converts the
thermal energy of steam into mechanical
energy by turning the blades of a rotor.
Applications:
As prime movers in all thermal and nuclear
power plants to produce electricity, large
ships, pumps and fans at petrochemical
plants.
 CLASSIFICATION THE STEAM TURBINES
Steam turbines are classified into

1. According To The Mode Of Steam Action

a)impulse turbine b)reaction turbine

2. According To The Direction of Steam Flow

a)Axial flow turbine b)Radial flow turbine

3. According To Exhaust Condition Of Steam

a) Condensing turbine b) Non condensing turbine

4. According To The Pressure Of Steam

a) High pressure turbine b)Medium pressure turbine
c)Low pressure turbine

5. According To The Number Of Stages

a) Single stage turbine b) Multi stage turbine
IMPULSE TURBINES

 In impulse turbines, high-

velocity steam from fixed
nozzles impacts the blades,
and this impulse drives the
blades forward, causing the
rotor to turn.
 The main feature of these
turbines is that the heat drop
per stage can be quite large,
allowing for large blades and
a smaller number of stages.
REACTION TURBINES

 In reaction turbines, high-velocity

steam from nozzles striking blades also
produces impulse, but the steam jet
runs into the blades and the main force
turning the rotor is the reactive force
produced by the expansion of steam
flowing off the rotor blades
themselves.
 The main feature of this type of turbine
is that in contrast to the impulse
turbine, the heat drop per stage is
lessened, so the blades become smaller
and the number of stages increases.