MEANING OF

RESEARCH
- Refers to a search for knowledge.
- “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for
new facts in any branch of knowledge”
- According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested
solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data; making
deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing
the conclusions to determine whether they fit the formulating
hypothesis.
 OBJECTIVES OF
RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden
and which has not been discovered as yet.
Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of research
objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies)
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of
different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present. (summarize the characteristics of a data). – central tendency,
variability or frequency
The main characteristic of this method is that the researcher has no control over the
variables; he can only report what has happened or what is happening. Most ex post facto
research projects are used for descriptive studies in which the researcher seeks to measure
such items as, for example, frequency of shopping, preferences of people, or similar data. Ex
post facto studies also include attempts by researchers to discover causes even when they
cannot control the variables. The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are
survey methods of all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material. (critical
thinking skills- student research we use AR during studies to find most relevant info)
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or fundamental (to
basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem
facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas fundamental research is mainly
concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of a theory.
Eg. Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research.
Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour carried on with a view to make
generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of fundamental research. Research to
identify social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the
marketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research.
Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical
problem, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base of
applications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity
or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e.,
why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an
important type of qualitative research.
This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depth
interviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests,
sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.
Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or what they
think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research.
Qualitative research is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to
discover the underlying motives of human behaviour
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones.
On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often
without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with
conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more
of the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time
required to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the
basis of some other similar factor.
Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-time research
(confined to a single time-period) or longitudinal research (carried on over several time-
periods).
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out.
Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follow
case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies
usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples
and very deep probing data gathering devices.
 TYPES OF RESEARCH
The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory
research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized
research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be
tested.
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to
study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any
remote point of time.
Research can also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing
conclusion-oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry
as he proceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes.
Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in
this case is not free to embark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations
research is an example of decision oriented research since it is a scientific method of
providing executive departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding operations
under their control
 Research Approaches
There are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the qualitative
approach.
The former involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
This approach can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and simulation
approaches to research.
- The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data base from which to infer
characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means survey research where a sample
of population is studied (questioned or observed) to determine its characteristics, and it is then
inferred that the population has the same characteristics.
- Experimental approach is characterized by much greater control over the research environment
and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe their effect on other variables.
- Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial environment within which relevant
information and data can be generated. This permits an observation of the dynamic behaviour of a
system (or its sub-system) under controlled conditions.
 Research Approaches
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions and behaviour.
Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and impressions.
Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the
form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis.
Generally, the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth
interviews are used. All these are explained at length in chapters that follow.
 Research as Scientific Method
The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.
Research, as we have already stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the consequences of any
particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur.
Further, research implies the researcher is interested in more than particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of the
results and in their extension to more complicated and general situations.”

On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although they may vary considerably from one
science to another, is usually given the name of scientific method.
In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the branches (of science) and that method is the
method of all logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies
facts of any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the Scientific Method and is a
man of science.”
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic
interrelation of facts.
Scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and a
combination of these three in varying proportions.”
In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that their possible alternatives become clear.
Further, logic develops the consequences of such alternatives, and when these are compared with observable phenomena, it
becomes possible for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is most in harmony with the observed facts. All this is
done through experimentation and survey investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method.
 Research as Scientific Method
The purpose of survey investigations may also be to provide scientifically gathered
information to work as a basis for the researchers for their conclusions.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as
under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing
the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.
 Research as Scientific Method
Thus, “the scientific method encourages a rigorous, impersonal mode of procedure dictated
by the demands of logic and objective procedure.”
Accordingly, scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method, i.e., a
method free from personal bias or prejudice, a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities
of a phenomenon capable of being verified, a method wherein the researcher is guided by
the rules of logical reasoning, a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly
manner and a method that implies internal consistency.
 Importance of Research in
Psychology
Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical
habits of thinking and organization.
- The first step in understanding anything is to give it a name. Description involves observing a
behaviour and noting everything about it, as for example, what is happening, where it
happens, to whom it happens, and under what circumstances it happens.
- Finding explanation for behaviour is a very important step in the process of forming theories of
behaviour. A theory is a general explanation of a set of observations or facts. The goal of
research provides the observations, and the goal of explanation helps to build the theory.
- Improving the quality of life - Psychological research are often conducted to solve various
problems faced by the society at different levels such as individual, organisation, or community.
Research help to solve problems in diverse settings, such as in a classroom in a school, or in an
industry, or in a hospital, or even in a military establishment, demand professional help.
Applications in the health sector are remarkable. Because of these efforts quality of life
becomes a major concern for psychologists
 Importance of Research in
Psychology
- Psychological research can be used to understand what makes people act
and think in specific ways.
- It allows researchers to assess the impact of various psychological disorders
and develop effective treatments.
- Psychology-focused research can also help you understand how
relationships, peers, family, society, and ethics affect an individual or
community. With this research, you can understand how changing a variable
can affect a dependent variable
 Criteria of Good Research
It is important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by
them. One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.
4. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
 Criteria of Good Research
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

The qualities of a good research as under:

1. Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
 Criteria of Good Research
2. Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying
out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from
that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context
of decision making.
3. Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
4. Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
 Problems Encountered by
Researchers in India
1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a great impediment for
researchers in our country.
- paucity of competent researchers.
- take a leap in the dark without knowing research methods.
- research is not methodologically sound.
- Research to many researchers and even to their guides, is mostly a scissor and paste job
without any insight shed on the collated materials. The consequence is obvious, viz., the
research results, quite often, do not reflect the reality or realities.
Thus, a systematic study of research methodology is an urgent necessity. Before undertaking
research projects, researchers should be well equipped with all the methodological aspects.
As such, efforts should be made to provide shortduration intensive courses for meeting this
requirement.
 Problems Encountered by
Researchers in India
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one
side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions on
the other side.
A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature remain untouched/untreated by the
researchers for want of proper contacts. Efforts should be made to develop satisfactory
liaison among all concerned for better and realistic researches. There is need for developing
some mechanisms of a university—industry interaction programme so that academics can
get ideas from practitioners on what needs to be researched and practitioners can apply the
research done by the academics
 Problems Encountered by
Researchers in India
3. Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in
supplying the needed information to researchers. The concept of secrecy seems to be
sacrosanct to business organisations in the country so much so that it proves an
impermeable barrier to researchers. Thus, there is the need for generating the confidence
that the information/data obtained from a business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem
can be solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on
which and the places where the research is going on.
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common. Hence, there is need for developing a
code of conduct for researchers which, if adhered sincerely, can win over this problem.
 Problems Encountered by
Researchers in India
6. Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the completion
of research studies.
7. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the
time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc.,
rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and
new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time. . Thus, efforts should be
made for the regular and speedy supply of all governmental publications to reach our libraries.
9. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on
account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in
coverage by the concerning agencies.
10. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems
relating to the process of data collection and related things.