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Lecture 8 General Principles of Grammatical Analysis

Lecture 7 discusses general principles of grammatical analysis, focusing on the structure and functions of language. It explains the nature of compound and complex sentences, the significance of grammar, and the relationships between linguistic units. The lecture also highlights the hierarchical structure of language and introduces concepts such as isomorphism and the three types of meaning: referential, syntactic, and pragmatic.

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2 views

Lecture 8 General Principles of Grammatical Analysis

Lecture 7 discusses general principles of grammatical analysis, focusing on the structure and functions of language. It explains the nature of compound and complex sentences, the significance of grammar, and the relationships between linguistic units. The lecture also highlights the hierarchical structure of language and introduces concepts such as isomorphism and the three types of meaning: referential, syntactic, and pragmatic.

Uploaded by

akramovagulnoza1978
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Lecture 7

General principles
of grammatical
analysis
Summary of the previous
lecture.

• Explain the following


statement.
• “In compound
sentences the clauses
are equipotent”
Explain the following
statement.
• 1. The order of clauses
in compound sentences
is fixed.
Explain the following
statement.
• 2. Between clauses of compound
sentences there exist certain semantic
relations. And these relations are defined by
conjunctions and connectives:
• A) Harmony or agreement (copulative
relation)
• B) Contrast or opposition
• C) The choice or alternation
• D) Reason or consequence
Define the type of clause in the
subordinate clause of the
following complex sentences.
• Whatever I can do for you will be nothing
but paying a debt.
• Time will show whether you are right or
wrong.
• The thing is what we should do the next.
• He that is not with me is against me.
• The lot that is on the corner needs
moving.
Define the type of adverbial
clause of the following
complex sentences.
• a) My cat follows me wherever I go.
• b) I'll not wait here till you come back.
• c) He behaved better than he did last
time.
• d) If it rains tomorrow, I'II not go.
• e) Be careful lest they deceive you.
• j) He walks as if he were lame.
General principles of
grammatical analysis.
"Homo sapiens"("man
with wisdom")
• Man is not well defined as "Homo sapiens"
("man with wisdom"). For what do we mean
by wisdom? It has not been proved so far
that animals do not possess it. Those of
you who have pets can easily prove the
contrary. Most recently anthropologists
have started defining human beings as
"man the toolmaker". However, apes
can also make primitive tools.
Homo loquens" - "man
the speaking animal"
• What sets man apart from the rest of
animal kingdom is his ability to
speak: he is "can easily object by
saying that animals can also speak
Homo loquens" - "man the speaking
animal". But their sounds are
meaningless, and there is no link
between sound and meaning (or if there
is, it is of a very primitive kind)
Homo
Grammaticus
• The link between sound and
meaning for man is grammar.
Only with the help of grammar
we can combine words to form
sentences and texts. Man is not
merely Homo loquens, he is
Homo Grammaticus.
Grammar
• The term "grammar" goes back to a Greek
word that may be translated as the "art of
writing". But later this word acquired a
much wider sense and came to embrace the
whole study of language. Now it is often
used as the synonym of linguistics. A
question comes immediately to mind:
• What does this study involve?
Grammar may be practical and
theoretical.
Linguistic units (or in other words - signs) can go
into three types of relations:
• a) The relation between a unit and an
object in the world around us (objective
reality).
• This type of meaning is called referential
meaning of a unit. It is semantics that studies
the referential meaning of units.
b) The relation between a unit and
other units (inner relations between
units).

• No unit can be used


independently; it serves as an
element in the system of other
units. This kind of meaning is
called syntactic. Formal relation
of units to one another is studied
by syntactics (or syntax).
c) The relation between a unit
and a person who uses it.
• As we know too well, when we are saying
something, we usually have some purpose in mind.
We use the language as an instrument for our
purpose. One and the same word or sentence may
acquire different meanings in communication. This
type of meaning is called pragmatic. The study of
the relationship between linguistic units and the
users of those units is done by pragmatics.
• (e.g.) “I have two sons.”
• I heart you!
Thus there are three models of
linguistic description: semantic,
syntactic and pragmatic
• To illustrate the difference
between these different ways of
linguistic analysis, let us consider
the following sentence:

• Students are
students.
Functions of human
language
• Any human language has two main functions: the
communicative function and the expressive or
representative function - human language is the
living form of thought. These two functions are closely
interrelated as the expressive function of language is
realized in the process of speech communication.
• The expressive function of language is performed
by means of linguistic signs and that is why we
say that language is a semiotic system. It means
that linguistic signs are of semiotic nature: they are
informative and meaningful.
There are other examples of semiotic
systems but all of them are no
doubt much simpler.
• For instance, traffic lights use a system of
colours to instruct drivers and people to go
or to stop. Some more examples: Code
Morse, Brighton Alphabet, computer
languages, etc.
What is the difference between language
as a semiotic system and other semiotic
systems?
Language is regarded as a
system of elements
• These elements have no value without each
other;
• they depend on each other;
• they exist only in a system;
• they are nothing without a system.
• System implies the characterization of a
complex object as made up of separate
parts (e.g. the system of sounds).
Language is a structural
system.
• Structure means hierarchical layering of
parts in constituting the whole. In the
structure of language there are four main
structural levels:
• phonological
• morphological
• syntactical
• supersyntatical
The levels are represented by
the corresponding level units:
• The phonological level is the lowest level. The phonological
level unit is the phoneme. It is a distinctive unit (bag -
back).
• The morphological level has two level units:
• a) the 'morpheme - the lowest meaningful unit (teach -
teacher);
• b) the word - the main naming ('nominative) unit of
language.
• The syntactical level has two level units as well:
• a) the word-group - the dependent syntactic unit;
• b) the sentence - the main communicative unit.
• The supersyntactical level has the text as its level unit.
Isomorphism

• To sum it up, each level has its own system.


Therefore, language is regarded as a system of
systems. The level units are built up in the same
way and that is why the units of a lower level serve
the building material for the units of a higher level.
• This similarity and likeness of organization of
linguistic units is called isomorphism. This is
how language works - a small number of
elements at one level can enter into thousands of
different combinations to form units at the other
level.

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