MICROMERITICS

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 MICROMERITICS

MICROMERITICS is the science and technology of small

particles.
The unit of particle size used in the micrometer
(µm), micron (µ).
As particle size decreases ↓, area increases ↑
 Applications in Pharmacy

 Release and dissolution.

 Absorption and drug action.
 Physical stability.
 Dose uniformity.

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 Size and the size range
 Size and the size range of particles are importance
in pharmacy because the size and surface area of a
particle related to the physical, chemical and
pharmacological properties of a drug.
 The particle size of a drug can affect its release
from dosage forms that are administered orally,
parenterally, rectally and topically.
 In the area of tablet and capsule manufacture,
control of the particle size is essential in the
necessary flow properties and proper mixing of
granules and powders.
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 Particle Size and Size Distribution
 In a collection of particles of more than one
size, two properties are important,

 1. The shape and surface are of the individual

particles.
 2. The particle size and size distributions (The
size range and number or weight of particles).

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 Particle Size
 The size of a sphere is readily expressed in terms of its
diameter.
 The Surface diameter, ds , is the diameter of a sphere
having the same surface area as the particle.
 The Volume diameter, dv , is the diameter of a sphere
having the same volume as the particle.
 The Projected diameter, dp , is the projected diameter of
a sphere having the same observed area as the particle.
 The Stokes diameter, dst, is the diameter which describes
an equivalent sphere undergoing sedimentation at the
same rate as the asymmetric particle. 6
 Particle Size
 Any collection of particles is usually
polydisperse. It is therefore necessary to know not
only the size of a certain particle, but also how
many particles of the same size exist in the sample.
we need an estimate of the size range present and
the number or weight fraction of each particle size.
 This is the particle-size distribution and from it we
can calculate an average particle size for the
sample.
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 Particle Size Distribution
 When the number or weight of particles lying
within a certain size range is plotted against
the size range or mean particle size, a so-
called frequency distribution curve is
obtained.
 This is important because it is possible to
have two samples with the same average
diameter but different distributions.

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 MEAN PARTICLE SIZE
 Mean value of particle size distribution
 The value of each particle size should be multiplied
by the normalized particle amount (difference %)
and the result should be divided by the total
normalized particle amount (100%).

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 Properties of Powders
• 1. Fundamental properties :-
These properties relate to the individual
particle.

• 2. Derived properties :-
They are dependent on fundamental
properties & define the factors relating to
their measurement.
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 Fundamental properties
1. Particle size and size distribution
2. Particle shape
3. Particle surface area
4. Particle weight 5. Particle

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 Derived properties:

• 1. Density of powders
(a) Bulk density
(b)Tapped density
(c) Granular density
(d)True density
2. Flow properties of powders
3. Porosity
4. Bulkiness
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 Fundamental properties of powders
Particle size

Denoted in micrometers (formerly called as microns)

One micrometer is equal to 10-3 mm or 10-6 m
One millimicrometer is called one nanometer (nm)
One nanometer = 10-9 m or 10-6 mm or 10-3 µm
1 m = 1000 mm
1 mm = 1000 µm
1 µm = 1000 nm
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 Particle size determination

Methods
1. Optical Microscopy(range: 0.2-100 µm).
2. Sieving Method (range: 40-9500 µm).
3. Sedimentation Method(range: 0.08-300 µm).
4. Conductivity Method (range: 0.5-300 µm).

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 Optical Microscopy
• Particle size in the range of 0.2 – 100 µm can be
measured.
• This method gives number distribution which can
be converted to weight distribution Optical
microscope lens has limited resolving power.
• Advanced microscopes have better resolving
power and can measure size in nano range:
Ultra microscope, Electron microscope-
Scanning Electron microscope (SEM), Transmission
Electron microscope (TEM) 15
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R.VIJAYAKUMAR ., M Pharm., Asst Professor,Dept of
 Procedure:
1. Eye piece of the microscope is fitted with a
micrometer.
2. This eye-piece micrometer is calibrated using a
standard stage micrometer.
3. The powder sample is dispersed in a suitable
vehicle in which it does not dissolve and its
properties are not altered. (eg. water, paraffin oil.)
4. This sample is mounted on a slide and placed on
the stage under the objective of microscope.
5. Around 625 particles are visualized. their
diameter is noted and mean is computed.
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Advantages
 One can view particles
 Any aggregates detected
 Contamination of particles detected
 Use of cover slip for arresting motion of particles
 Easy and simple method.

Disadvantages
 Length and breadth can be detected but depth
or thickness of particles cannot be measured .
 Slow- time consuming , tedious, inaccurate.
 Number of particles to be measured is more
sample required. 18
 Application
• Particle size analysis in suspensions, aerosols,
globule size analysis in emulsion.

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 2. Sieving Method
• Sieving method is an ordinary and simple method.
• It is widely used as a method for the particle size
analysis
• Sieve analysis is usually carried out using dry
powders.
Although, for powders in liquid suspension or
which agglomerate during dry sieving, a process of
wet sieving can be used.

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Sieving Method

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• Sieving method directly gives weight distribution.
• It find application in dosage form development of
tablets and capsules.
• Normally, 15% of fine powder should be present in
granulated material to get proper flow of material
and achieve good compaction.
• Thus percent of coarse, moderate, fine powder is
estimated by this method.

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PROCEDURE :

• Sieve analysis utilizes a wire mesh made of brass,

bronze or stainless steel with known aperture (hole)
diameters which form a physical barrier to particles.
• The standard sieve sizes are as per the
pharmacopoeia
• Most sieve analyses utilize a series, stack (layer) of
sieves which have the coarser mesh at the top of the
series and smallest mesh at the bottom above a
collector tray
(The mesh size goes on decreasing from top
R.VIJAYAKUMAR ., M Pharm., 23 Asst
Professor,Dept of Pharmaceutics,VCP,Erode.
Operational principle:
• A sieve stack usually comprises 6-8 sieves.
• Powder is loaded on to the coarsest sieve of the
stack and then it is subjected to mechanical
vibration for specified time, eg 20 minutes.
• After this time, the powder retained on each sieve is
weighed
• The particles are considered to be retained on the
sieve mesh with an aperture corresponding to the
sieve diameter.
• The size is estimated as per the standards given in
pharmacopoeia 24
• Care should be taken to get reproducible results.
• The type of motion, time of operation, speed,
weight of powder should be fixed and standardized.
Advantages-
Inexpensive,
Simple,
Rapid &Reproducible results (if
parameters are standardized)
 Disadvantages-
lower limit is 50 microns
Powder if moist, can cause clogging of apertures
Attrition between particles during the process may
cause size reduction giving inaccurate results . 25
 SEDIMENTATION METHOD
(range: 0.08-300 µm)
• In this method particle size can be determined by
examining the powder as it sediments out.
• Several methods has based on the sedimentation ,
Pipette method
Balance method
Hygrometers method
• By measuring the terminal settling velocity of
particles through a liquid medium in a gravitational
centrifugal environment using by Anderson
apparatus.
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 Principle
• Particle size analysis by sedimentation method
can be divided into two main categories
according to the method of measurement
used.
• Measurement of particle in a retention zone
and non-retention measurement zone.
 An example of a non-retention zone
measurement is known as the pipette
method.

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 Anderson Pipette Method
• One of the most popular of the pipette methods
was that developed by Anderson and Lundberg and
commonly called the Anderson pipette.
• In this method , known volumes of suspension are
drawn off and the concentration differences are
measured with respect to time.
• It involves measuring the % of solids that settle
with time in a graduated vessel.

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 Sample Preparation
• Powder is dispersed in a suitable solvent
• If the powder is hydrophobic, it may be
necessary to add dispersing agent to aid
wetting of the powder.
• In case where the powder is soluble in water
it will be necessary to use non- aqueous
liquids or carry out the analysis in a
gas(aerosols).

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 Construction
• The Anderson fixed-position pipette consists of a 200 mm
graduated cylinder which can hold about 500 ml of suspension
fluid.
• A pipette is located centrally in the cylinder and is held in
position by a ground glass stopper so that its tip coincides with
the zero level.
• A three way tap allows fluid to be drawn into a 10 ml reservoir
which can then be emptied into a beaker or centrifuge tube.

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 Method
• A 1% suspension of the powder in a suitable liquid
medium is placed in the pipette.
• At a given intervals of time, samples are withdrawn
from a specified depth without disturbing the
suspension.
• The amount of powder can be determined by
weight following drying or centrifuging;
alternatively, chemical analysis of the particles can
be carried out.
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• A pipette is located centrally in the cylinder and is
held in position by a ground glass stopper so that its
tip coincides with the zero level.
• A three way tap allows fluid to be drawn into a 10
ml reservoir which can then be emptied into a
beaker or centrifuge tube.
• The amount of powder can be determined by
weight following drying or centrifuging.
• The data of cumulative weight is used for the
determination of particle weight distribution,
number distribution etc..

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• The particle size is determined in terms of stokes’
diameter (the diameter of a particle measured
during sedimentation at constant rate) using
modified Stokes' equation.

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• The second type of sedimentation size analysis,
using retention zone methods, also uses Stokes'
law to quantify particle size.
• One of the most common retention zone methods
uses a sedimentation balance.
• In this method the amount of sedimented
particles falling on to a balance pan suspended in
the fluid is recorded.
• The continual increase in weight of sedimentation
of the particles.

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 Kinetic method/ Conductivity methods
• There are various subtypes
Two popular methods are-
• Electrical stream sensing zone method (Coulter
counter).
• Powder samples are dispersed in an electrolyte to
form a very dilute suspension.
• The suspension is usually subjected to ultrasonic
agitation to break up any particle agglomerates.
• A dispersant may also be added to aid particle
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deagglomeration.
 Method
• The particle suspension is drawn through an
aperture accurately drilled through a sapphire
crystal set into the wall of a hollow glass tube.
• Electrodes, situated on either side of the aperture
are surrounded by an electrolyte solution.
• These electrodes monitor the change in electrical
signal which occurs when a particle momentarily
occupies the orifice and displaces its own volume of
electrolyte.
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• The volume of electrolyte fluid which is displaced
in the orifice by the presence of a particle causes
a change in electrical resistance between the
electrodes which is proportional to the volume of
the particle.

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• Advantage:

 Particle size ranging from 0.5 – 500 microns

 Gives number distribution, Particle volume measured
and can be converted to diameter.
 Accurate, sensitive, fast technique.
 4000 particles per second can be counted.

• Disadvantage:
 Expensive

R.VIJAYAKUMAR ., M Pharm., 38
Asst Professor,Dept of Pharmaceutics,VCP,E
• Laser light scattering methods It is based on
the principle of change in light intensity.
The measurement of this change in light
intensity gives estimate of particle size.

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 Surface area
• Surface area of a powder can be calculated using particle size
data obtained from any suitable method.
Specific surface area i.e. surface area per unit weight
(Sw ) or unit volume (Sv ) can be estimated as follows:

• Sv = surface area of particles / volume of particles

• Surface area is an important parameter as the bioavailability of

certain drugs is dependant on surface area.
• eg. Bephenium (anthelminitic), Griseofulvin (antifungal)- if the
surface area is less than specified, the absorption decreases.
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 Surface Area Determination
Adsorption method
• Surface area is most commonly determined based on
Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) theory of adsorption.
• Most substances adsorb a monomolecular layer of gas under
certain conditions of partial pressure of gas and temperature.
• The adsorption process is carried out at liquid nitrogen
temperatures -196˚C.
• Once surface adsorption has reached equilibrium, the sample
is heated at RT and Nitrogen gas is desorbed. Its volume is
measured.
• As each N2 mol. occupies fixed area, one can compute surface
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area of pre-weighed sample.
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 Air Permeability method

o Powder is packed in sample holder

o Packing appears as series of capillaries
o Air is allowed to pass through the capillaries at
constant pressure
o Resistance is created as air passes through capillaries
thus causing pressure drop.
o Greater the surface area greater the resistance
o Air permeability is inversely proportional to the
surface area.
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 Particle Shape Determination
Particle shape also has influence on surface
area, flow properties, packing and compaction
of the particles.
Spherical particles have minimum surface area
and better flow properties. Shape can also
have influence on rate of dissolution of drugs.

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Techniques of Particle Shape Determination

Microscopy method
Light scattering method

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 Derived properties of powders
• Size or diameter is a fundamental property of a
particle.
• Volume, density, porosity, flow property etc. are the
properties derived from fundamental properties.

e.g. Volume can be calculated from the

diameter of the particle (4/3 πr 3 ).
The derived properties can also be calculated
without the use of fundamental properties.

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 Density of powders
• Density is defined as weight per unit volume (W/V).
During tapping, particles gradually pack more
efficiently, the powder volume decreases and the
tapped density increases.

Types of Density
1. True density
2. Bulk density

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1. True density: The true density or absolute density
of a sample excludes the volume of the pores and
voids within the powder sample.

2. Bulk density: The bulk density value includes the

volume of all of the pores within the powder
sample.

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 DENSITY
• Apparent bulk density- is determined by pouring
presieved (40#) bulk drug into a graduated cylinder
via a funnel and note the volume as is (g/ml)
without subjecting to any external force.

• Tapped density: The cylinder is subjected to fixed

no. of taps on a mechanical tapper apparatus
(approx. 100) until the powder bed has reached
minimum. (useful for determining the appropriate
size for capsule formulation).
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Bulk Density Apparatus

Bulk density = Mass of the

powder /Bulk volume

Tapped bulk density = Mass of the

powder/ Tapped Bulk
volume

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 Applications
 Decides the size of the capsule based on bulk and tapped
volume of a given sample.
 Higher the bulk volume, lower the bulk density and bigger
the size of the capsule.
 Helps to decide proper size of a container or packing
material.
For Light powders
When particles packed loosely ,Lots of gaps between
particles
Bulkvolume increases Light powders have high bulk
volume, hence low density.
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 Flow properties of Powder
• Pharmaceutical powders may be broadly
classified as free-flowing or cohesive.
• Most flow properties are significantly affected
by changes in particle size, density,
electrostatic charges, adsorbed moisture.
• Good flow property is required for easy and
uniform flow from hopper to die cavity
ensuring accurate weight and dose for tablets.

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• Angle of repose is calculated for estimating flow
properties.
It is defined as the maximum angle possible
between the surface of a pile of the powder and the
horizontal plane.

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 Packing properties (Porosity)
• It is the ratio of the volume of voids between particles, plus
the volume of pores, to the total volume occupied by the
powder, including voids and pores.
• A set of particles can be filled into a volume of space in
different ways.
This is because by slight vibration, particles can be
mobilized and can occupy a different spatial volume than
before.
• This changes the bulk volume because of rearrangement of
the packing geometry of the particles.
such geometric rearrangements result in a
transition from loosely packed particles to more tightly 59
• The bulk density of a powder is always less than the
true density of its component particles because the
powder contains inter particle voids.
• Thus, powder can possess a single true density but
can have many different bulk densities, depending
on the way in which the particles are packed and
the bed porosity.

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