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SAMPLING

It is the process of selecting a number

of individuals for a study in such a
way that the individuals represent
the larger group from which they
were selected
 SAMPLE
SAMPLE UNIT

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION
• A population can be defined as including all people or items with
the characteristic one wishes to understand.
• Because there is rarely enough time or money to gather
information from everyone or everything in a population, So the
goal is to find a representative sample of that population.
 SAMPLING
Target Population or Universe
The population to which the investigator wants to generalize
his results
Sampling Unit:
Smallest unit from which sample can be selected
Sampling frame
The sampling frame is the list from which the potential
respondents are drawn
 Telephone directory
 List of five star Hotel
 List of student
Sampling scheme
Method of selecting sampling units from sampling frame
Sample: all selected respondent are sample
 SAMPLE

A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully

representative) collection of units from a
population used to determine truths about
that population” (Field, 2005)
The sampling frame is a list of all elements
or other units containing the elements in a
population.
Sampling is taking any portion of population
or universe as representative of that
population.
Population – Totality of the objects or
individuals regarding inferences are
made in a sampling study
Sample is a smaller representation of a
large whole
Sampling is a process of selecting the
subset of randomised number of the
members of the population of a study
• Sampling frame /Source list -complete list of all
the members/ units of the population from which
each sampling unit is taken
• Sample design / sample plan-is a definite plan for
obtaining a sample from a given population.
• Sampling unit-is a geographical one (state,
district)
• Sample size-number of items selected for the
study
• Sampling Error-is the difference between
population value and sample value.
• Sampling distribution-is the relative frequency
distribution of samples.
 WHY SAMPLE?
Get information about large populations
 Lower cost
 More accuracy of results
 High speed of data collection
 Availability of Population elements.
 Less field time
 When it’s impossible to study the whole population
 Controls unlimited data
 Assist to collect intensive and exhaustive data
 Convenient
 STEPS IN SAMPLING PROCESS

• Define population (element, units, extent and

time)
• Specify sampling frame
• Specify sampling unit (retailers, students,
unemployed etc)
• Specify sampling method / technique
• Determine sampling size
• Specify sampling size (Optimum sample)
• Specific sampling plan
• Select sample
PRINCIPLES OF SAMPLING

Two important principles

• Principles of Statistical regularity –
Random (sufficient representative of the
sample)
• Principles of inertia of larger numbers –
(Steadiness, stability and consistency)
• Principles are referred to as the laws of
sampling
 PRINCIPLE OF ‘STATISTICAL REGULARITY’
• The principle of statistical regularity is derived from the
theory of probability in mathematics.
• According to this principle, when a large number of
items is selected at random from the universe, then it is
likely to possess the same characteristics as that of the
entire population.
• This principle asserts that the sample selection is
random, i.e. every item has an equal and likely chance of
being selected.
• It is believed that sample selected randomly and not
deliberately acts as a true representative of the
population.
• Thus, this principle is characterized by the large sample
 PRINCIPLE OF ‘INERTIA OF LARGE
NUMBERS’
• The principle of Inertia of large numbers
states that the larger the size of the sample the
more accurate the conclusion is likely to be.
• This principle is based on the notion, that
large numbers are more stable in their
characteristics than the small numbers, and
the variation in the aggregate of large
numbers is insignificant.
• It does not mean that there is no variation in
the large numbers, there is, but is less than in
the smaller numbers.
 GOOD SAMPLE

• Sample to be a true representation of the

universe
• No bias in sample selection
• Quality of sample should be same
• Regulating conditions should be same for
all individuals
• Sampling needs to be adequate
• Estimate the sampling error
• Sample study to be applicable to all items
 What is Good Sample?
The sample must be:
1. representative of the population;
2. appropriately sized (the larger the better);
3. unbiased;
4. random (selections occur by chance);

Merits of Sampling
Size of population
Fund required for the study
Facilities
Time
TYPES OF SAMPLE BASED ON TWO FACTORS:

THE RESPRESENATION BASIS

 PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

ELEMENT SELECTION TECHNIQUE

 RESTRICTED SAMPLING
 UN RESTRICTED SAMPLING
 Types of Sampling
•Probability sample – a method of sampling that
uses of random selection so that all units/ cases in
the population have an equal probability of being
chosen.
• Non-probability sample – does not involve
random selection and methods are not based on
Sampling
the rationale of probability theory.
Techniques

Non-
Probability
Probability
Probability sampling technique is one in which
every unit in the population has an equal
chance of being selected as a sample
This probability can be accurately determined.
Non-probability sampling is any sampling
method where some elements of the population
has no chance of selection or where the
probability of selection cant be accurately
determined.
The selection is non-random
Selection of elements based on assumptions
regarding the population of interest which
Probability (Random) Samples
 Simple random sample
 Systematic random sample
 Stratified random sample
Probability Sampling
 Cluster sample

Simple Systematic
Stratified
Random Sampling
Sampling
Random Cluster
Sampling Sampling

Proportionate Dis-
Proportionate
Two Multi-
One- Stage Stage
Stage
Non-Probability Samples
Convenience samples (ease of access)
sample is selected from elements of a population that are
easily accessible
Purposive sample (Judgmental Sampling)
You chose who you think should be in the study
Quota Sampling
Snowball Sampling (friend of friend….etc.)

Non-
Probability

Convenience Quota Judgment Snowball

Sampling Sampling Sampling
Sunil Kumar Sampling
Difference between Probability
sampling and Non Probability
 SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
• Applicable when population is small, homogeneous &
readily available
• All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability.
Each element of the frame thus has an equal probability
of selection. A table of random number or lottery system
is used to determine which units are to be selected.
Advantage
• Easy method to use
• No need of prior information of population
• Equal and independent chance of selection to every
element
• Disadvantages
• If sampling frame large, this method impracticable.
 Simple random
sampling

Every subset of a specified size n from the population

has an equal chance of being selected
 SUITABILITY

• This method is suitable for small homogeneous

• Randomly selecting units from a sampling frame.
‘Random’ means mathematically each unit from
the sampling frame has an equal probability of
being included in the sample.

• Stages in random sampling:

Systematicall
Randomly y select
select the random
Develop Assign
Define required numbers
sampling each unit a
population amount of until it meets
frame number
random the sample
numbers size
requirements
 Systematic Sampling
• Similar to simple random sample. No table of random
numbers – select directly from sampling frame. Ratio
between sample size and population size

First unit
Work out Select select by
what fraction according to random
Develop fraction (100 numbers
Define Decide the of the frame
sampling sample from then every
population sample size the sample
frame 1,000 frame then nth unit
size 10% so every
represents selected
10th unit) (e.g. every
10th)
Systematic Sampling
ADVANTAGES:
• Sample easy to select
• Suitable sampling frame can be identified easily
• Sample evenly spread over entire reference population
• Cost effective
DISADVANTAGES:
• Sample may be biased if hidden periodicity in
population coincides with that of selection.
• Each element does not get equal chance
• Ignorance of all element between two n element
 Systematic sampling

Every member ( for example: every 20th person) is

selected from a list of all population members.
 STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLE

The population is divided into two or more groups

called strata, according to some criterion, such as
geographic location, grade level, age, or income,
and subsamples are randomly selected from each
strata.
 Stratified Random
Sample
Stratified random sampling can be classified in to
a. Proportionate stratified sampling
It involves drawing a sample from each stratum in
proportion to the letter’s share in total population
b. Disproportionate stratified sampling
proportionate representation is not given to strata
it necessarily involves giving over representation to
some strata and under representation to other.

Develop Determine the Systematic

sampling proportion of sampling
Define frame each methods can
population according to population then be followed
characteristics variable of to select sample
required interest unit
STRATIFIED SAMPLING……
Advantage :
 Enhancement of representativeness to each sample
 Higher statistical efficiency
 Easy to carry out
Disadvantage:
• Classification error
• Time consuming and expensive
• Prior knowledge of composition and of
distribution of population
 CLUSTER SAMPLING
Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage sampling' .
• First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
• Second stage a sample of respondents within those areas is
selected.
• Population divided into clusters of homogeneous units,
usually based on geographical contiguity.
• Sampling units are groups rather than individuals.
• A sample of such clusters is then selected.
• All units from the selected clusters are studied.
• The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like
families. A simple random sample is taken of the subgroups
and then all members of the cluster selected are surveyed
 CLUSTER SAMPLING

Section 1 Section 2

Section 3

Section 5

Section 4
 CLUSTER SAMPLING…….
Advantages :

• Cuts down on the cost of preparing a sampling

frame. This can reduce travel and other
administrative costs.
• Disadvantages: sampling error is higher for a
simple random sample of same size. Often used to
evaluate vaccination

coverage in EPI
Cluster/ multi-stage random sample
• Cluster sampling: selecting a sample based on specific, naturally
occurring groups (clusters) within a population.
- Example: randomly selecting 20 hospitals from a list
of all hospitals in any city.
Multi-stage sampling: cluster sampling repeated at a number of
levels. - Example: randomly selecting hospitals by county and
then a sample of patients from each selected hospital.
Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or more levels
of units are embedded one in the other.
First stage, random number of districts chosen in all states.
Followed by random number of talukas, villages.
Then third stage units will be houses.
All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at last step are
surveyed.
 NON PROBABILITY
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

Sometimes known as grab or opportunity sampling or accidental or

haphazard sampling.
Selection of whichever individuals are easiest to reach.
It is done at the “convenience” of the researcher
For example, if the interviewer was to conduct a survey at a shopping
center early in the morning on a given day, the people that he/she could
interview would be limited to those given there at that given time, which
would not represent the views of other members of society in such an
area, if the survey was to be conducted at different times of day and
several times per week.
This type of sampling is most useful for pilot testing.
In social science research, snowball sampling is a similar technique, where
existing study subjects are used to recruit more subjects into the sample.
Convenience Sampling
Advantage: A sample selected for ease of
access, immediately known population group and
good response rate.
Disadvantage: cannot generalise findings (do
not know what population group the sample is
representative of) so cannot move beyond
describing the sample.
•Problems of reliability
•Do respondents represent the

target population
•Results are not generalizable
Use results that are easy to get
 JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING OR
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
The researcher chooses the sample based on who they
think would be appropriate for the study. This is used
primarily when there is a limited number of people
that have expertise in the area being researched

 Selected based on an experienced individual’s belief/pre

determined criteria.

 For e.g.,- a researcher may deliberately chose industrial

undertaking in which their is provided labour benefits
and undertaking in which no such benefits are provided.
Advantages
Based on the experienced person’s judgment
It is less costly and more convenient.
It guarantees inclusion of relevant elements in the sample.

Disadvantages
Does not ensure the representativeness of the sample
Less efficient for generalising when compared with
random sampling
It requires more prior extensive information about the
population one studies.
 QUOTA SAMPLING
The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-
groups, just as in stratified sampling. For e.g., on traits such as
sex, age ,social class etc.
Then judgment used to select subjects or units from each segment
based on a specified proportion.
For example, an interviewer may be told to sample 200 females and
300 males between the age of 45 and 60.
It is this second step which makes the technique one of non-
probability sampling.
In quota sampling the selection of the sample is non-random.
For example interviewers might be tempted to interview those who
look most helpful. The problem is that these samples may be
biased because not everyone gets a chance of selection. This
random element is its greatest weakness and quota versus
probability has been a matter of controversy for many years
Quota sampling is therefore a method of stratified
sampling in which the selection within strata is non
random.
Advantages
Contains specific subgroups in the proportions desired
May reduce bias
easy to manage, quick
Disadvantages
Dependent on subjective decisions
Not possible to generalize
only reflects population in terms of the quota, possibility
of bias in selection
Strict control of field work is difficult.
Snowball Sampling
Useful when a population is hidden or difficult to gain access to. The
contact with an initial group is used to make contact with others.
 Respondents identify additional people to included in the study
 The defined target market is small and unique
 Compiling a list of sampling units is very difficult
Advantages
 Identifying small, hard-to reach uniquely defined target population
 Useful in qualitative research
 access to difficult to reach populations (other methods may not yield
any results).
Disadvantages
 Bias can be present
 Limited generalizability
 not representative of the population and will result in a biased sample
as it is self-selecting.
ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING

The researcher can select any sample in

any place, can collect the data from
pedestrian also.
It can be used for exploratory studies
It has sample error.
It has less accuracy
 SAMPLING ERRORS

The errors which arise due to the use of sampling

surveys are known as the sampling errors.
Two types of sampling errors-Biased Errors,
Unbiased Errors
Biased Errors- Which arise due to selection of
sampling techniques.-size of the sample
Unbiased Errors / Random sampling errors-arise
due to chance differences between the members
of the population included in the sample and not
included.
METHODS OF REDUCING SAMPLING
ERROR
• Specific problem selection
• Systematic documentation of related
research
• Effective enumeration
• Effective pre-testing
• Controlling methodological bias
• Selection of appropriate sampling
techniques
NON SAMPLING ERRORS
Non sampling errors refers to biases or mistakes in
selection of sample
Causes of non-sampling errors
• Sampling Operations
• Inadequate response
• Misunderstanding the concepts
• Lack of knowledge
• Concealment of truth
• Loaded questions
• Processing errors
• Sample size