Research Design

Research Design
 Research design constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and
analysis of data.

 Research design aids the researcher in the allocation of limited resources by posing
crucial choices in methodology.

 Research design is the plan and structure of investigation so conceived as to obtain

answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or program of the
research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing
hypotheses and their operational implications to the final analysis of data.

 Research design expresses both the structure of the research problem—the frame-work,
organization, or configuration of the relationships among variables of a study—and the
plan of investigation used to obtain empirical evidence on those relationships.
 Research Design
• An activity- and time-based plan.
• A plan always based on the research question.
• A guide for selecting sources and types of information.
• A framework for specifying the relationships among the study’s variables.
• A procedural outline for every research activity.
 Classification of Designs
 Degree of Research Question Crystallization
Exploratory studies tend toward loose structures, with the objective of discovering future
research tasks. – The immediate purpose is usually to develop hypotheses or questions for future
research. The Formal Study begins where the exploration leaves off—with a hypothesis or research
question and involves precise procedures and data source specifications. The goal of a formal research
design is to test the hypotheses or answer the research questions posed.
• Exploratory research is not intended to provide conclusive evidence, but helps us to have a better
understanding of the problem.
• Exploratory research “tends to tackle new problems on which little or no previous research has
been done”.
• Unstructured interviews are the most popular primary data collection method with exploratory
studies. Additionally, surveys, focus groups and observation methods can be used to collect
primary data for this type of studies.
• Exploratory research design simply explores the research questions, leaving room for further
researches.
 Examples of Exploratory Research Design
The following are some examples for studies with exploratory research design in
business studies:
• A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing
communication channel
• An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services
within hospitality sector in Kerala
• An assessment of the role of corporate social responsibility on consumer
behaviour in pharmaceutical industry in the India
 Advantages of Exploratory Research
1. Lower costs of conducting the study
2. Flexibility and adaptability to change
3. Exploratory research is effective in laying the groundwork that will lead to future studies.
4. Exploratory studies can potentially save time by determining at the earlier stages the types of
research that are worth pursuing.

 Disadvantages of Exploratory Research

1. Inclusive nature of research findings
2. Exploratory studies generate qualitative information and interpretation of such type of information is
subject to bias
3. These types of studies usually make use of a modest number of samples that may not adequately
represent the target population. Accordingly, findings of exploratory research cannot be generalized to
a wider population.
4. Findings of such type of studies are not usually useful in decision making in a practical level.
 Method of Data Collection
 This classification distinguishes between Monitoring and Communication processes.
 Monitoring includes studies in which the researcher inspects the activities
of a subject or the nature of some material without attempting to elicit responses from
anyone. The researcher notes and records the information available from observations.
 Communication study, the researcher questions the subjects and collects their responses
by personal or impersonal means.
 The collected data may result from
(1) interview or telephone conversations
(2) self-administered or self-reported instruments sent through the mail, left in convenient
locations, or transmitted electronically or by other means
(3) instruments presented before and/or after a treatment or stimulus condition in an
experiment.
 Researcher Control of Variables
 In terms of the researcher’s ability to manipulate variables, we differentiate between Experimental
and Ex post facto designs.
Experimental Research Design
 In an experiment, the researcher attempts to control and/or manipulate the variables in the study. It
is enough that we can cause variables to be changed or held constant in keeping with our research
objectives.
 Experimental design is appropriate when one wishes to discover whether certain variables produce
effects in other variables. Experimentation provides the most powerful support possible for a
hypothesis of causation.
Types of Experimental Research Design
1. Pre-experimental Research Design
2. True Experimental Research Design
3. Quasi-experimental Research Design
 1. Pre-experimental Research
Design
 As the name suggests, pre-experimental research happens even before the true experiment
starts. This is done to determine the researchers’ intervention on a group of people. This
will help them tell if the investment of cost and time for conducting a true experiment is
worth a while. Hence, pre-experimental research is a preliminary step to justify the
presence of the researcher’s intervention.
 Validates the experiment in the preliminary phase itself. Pre-experimental design tells the
researchers how their intervention will affect the whole study.
 The pre-experimental design includes one or more than one experimental groups to be
observed against certain treatments. It is the simplest form of research design that follows
the basic steps in experiments.


 Types of Pre-experimental
Designs
One-shot case study design
1. This design practices the treatment of a single group.
2. It only takes a single measurement after the experiment.
3. A one-shot case study design only analyses post-test results.
Example:
 A team leader wants to implement a new soft skills program in the firm. The
employees can be measured at the end of the first month to see the improvement
in their soft skills. The team leader will know the impact of the program on the
employees.
One-group pretest-posttest design
1. Like the previous one, this design also works on just one experimental group.
2. But this one takes two measures into account.
3. A pre-test and a post-test are conducted.
Example:
 Following the previous example, the team leader here will conduct two tests. One
before the soft skill program implementation to know the level of employees before
they were put through the training. And a post-test to know their status after the
training.
Static-group comparison
1. This compares two experimental groups.
2. One group is exposed to the treatment.
3. The other group is not exposed to the treatment.
4. The difference between the two groups is the result of the experiment.
Example:
 The team lead decides one group of employees to get the soft skills
training while the other group remains as a control group and is not
exposed to any program. He then compares both the groups and finds
out the treatment group has evolved in their soft skills more than the
control group.
 2. True Experimental Research Design
 A true experimental research design relies on statistical analysis to prove or disprove a
researcher’s hypothesis. It is one of the most accurate forms of research because it provides
specific scientific evidence.
 True experimental design can establish a cause-effect relationship within a group.
 In a true experiment, a researcher must satisfy these three factors —
1. There is a control group that is not subjected to changes and an experimental group that will
experience the changed variables
2. A variable that can be manipulated by the researcher
3. Random distribution of the variables
 Example:
 Let’s say you are interested in the impact of a new psychological therapy on patients
with depression. In True experimental design ,to run a true experiment, you randomly
assign half the patients in a mental health clinic to receive the new treatment. The other
half—the control group—receives the standard course of treatment for depression.
Every few months, patients fill out a sheet describing their symptoms to see if the new
treatment produces significantly better (or worse) effects than the standard one.
 3. Quasi-experimental Research Design
 The word “Quasi” means similarity. A quasi-experimental design is similar to a true
experimental design. However, the difference with others is the assignment of the
control group. In this research design, an independent variable is manipulated, but the
participants of a group are not randomly assigned. This type of research design is used in
field settings where random assignment is either irrelevant or not required.

 Example: You discover that a few of the psychotherapists in the clinic have decided to try
out the new therapy, while others who treat similar patients have chosen to stick with the
normal protocol. You can use these pre-existing groups to study the symptom progression
of the patients treated with the new therapy versus those receiving the standard course of
treatment. Although the groups were not randomly assigned, if you properly account for
any systematic differences between them, you can be reasonably confident any
differences must arise from the treatment and not other confounding variables.
 Ex post facto design
 Ex post facto design, investigators have no control over the variables in the sense of being
able to manipulate them.
 They can only report what has happened or what is happening.
 An ex post facto research design is a method in which groups with qualities that already exist are
compared on some dependent variable. Also known as "after the fact" research, an ex post facto
design is considered quasi-experimental because the subjects are not randomly assigned - they are
grouped based on a particular characteristic or trait.
 Example, a researcher is interested in how weight influences self-esteem levels in adults. So the
participants would be separated into differing groups (underweight, normal weight, overweight) and
their self esteem levels measured. This is an ex post facto design because a pre-existing characteristic
(weight) was used to form the groups.
 The Purpose of the Study
 Reporting
 Descriptive
 Causal-explanatory and Causal-predictive
 A Reporting study provides a summation of data, often recasting data to achieve a deeper understanding or to
generate statistics for comparison.
Eg- In a study of crime, for example, a reporting study might tally the number of employee thefts
that take place in shopping malls versus free-standing stores.
 If the research is concerned with finding out who, what, where, when, or how much, then the study is Descriptive.
Descriptive research on employee theft would measure the types of theft committed (clothing vs. electronics vs.
housewares),how often, when (time of year, time of day, day of week), where (receiving dock, stockroom, sales
floor), and by whom (gender, age, years of service, departmental assignment).
 If a study is concerned with learning why—that is, how one variable produces changes in another - it is Causal
explanatory.
 Causal-explanatory study try to explain relationships among variables—for instance, why the crime
rate is higher in mall A than in mall B or why male employees steal more than female employees.
A Causal-predictive study attempts to predict an effect on one variable by manipulating another variable
while holding all other variables constant. In our crime example, researchers using a causal-predictive
study might be interested in whether installation of video surveillance cameras on the receiving dock
and in stockrooms would reduce employee theft in mall stores.

The Time Dimension

• Cross-sectional studies are carried out once and represent a snapshot of one point in time. It is an
observational study where data is collected as a whole to study a population at a single point in time to
examine the relationship between variables of interest.
• Example - a researcher wants to understand the relationship between joggers and level of cholesterol, he/she
might want to choose two age groups of daily joggers, one group is below 30 but more than 20 and the other,
above 30 but below 40 and compare these to cholesterol levels amongst non-joggers in the same age
categories.
• Longitudinal studies are repeated over an extended period. The data is gathered from the same sample
repeatedly over an extended period of time. Longitudinal study can last from a few years to even decades
depending on what kind of information needs to be obtained.
Example, in longitudinal study a researcher wishes to look at the changes in cholesterol level in women
above the age of 30 but below 40 years who have jogged regularly over the last 10 years. In longitudinal
study setup, it would be possible to account for cholesterol levels at the start of the jogging regime,
therefore longitudinal studies are more likely to suggest a cause-and-effect relationship.
 Cross-sectional study Longitudinal study
Cross-sectional studies are quick to conduct Longitudinal studies may vary from a few
as compared to longitudinal studies. years to even decades.
A longitudinal study requires a researcher to
A cross-sectional study is conducted at a
revisit participants of the study at proper
given point in time.
intervals.
Cross-sectional study is conducted with Longitudinal study is conducted with the
different samples. same sample over the years.
Cross-sectional studies cannot pin down Longitudinal study can justify cause-and-
cause-and-effect relationship. effect relationship.
Multiple variables can be studied at a single Only one variable is considered to conduct the
point in time. study.
Cross-sectional study is comparatively Since the study goes on for years longitudinal
cheaper. study tends to get expensive.
 The Topical Scope
 Statistical Design : Statistical studies are designed for breadth rather than depth. They
attempt to capture a population’s characteristics by making inferences from a sample’s
characteristics. Hypotheses are tested quantitatively. Generalizations about findings are
presented based on the representativeness of the sample and the validity of the design.
 Case studies place more emphasis on a full contextual analysis of fewer events or
conditions and their interrelations. Although hypotheses are often used, the reliance on
qualitative data makes support or rejection more difficult. An emphasis on detail
provides valuable insight for problem solving, evaluation, and strategy. This detail is
secured from multiple sources of information. It allows evidence to be verified and
avoids missing data
 The Research Environment
 Designs also differ as to whether they occur under actual environmental conditions
(field conditions) or under staged or manipulated conditions (laboratory conditions).
 To simulate is to replicate the essence of a system or process. Simulations are
increasingly used in research, especially in operations research. The major
characteristics of various conditions and relationships in actual situations are often
represented in mathematical models. Role-playing and other behavioral activities may
also be viewed as simulations.
 Participants’ Perceptual Awareness
 The usefulness of a design may be reduced due to a participant’s perceptual
awareness when people in a disguised study perceive that research is being
conducted. Participants’ perceptual awareness influences the outcomes of the
research in subtle ways.
 Research Design

1. Exploratory studies : Exploratory research is a research design that is used to investigate a research
problem that is not clearly defined or understood. It provides researchers with a deeper understanding of
a research problem and its context before further research can be carried out.
2. Descriptive studies: The descriptive research design is used to describe a phenomenon and its different
characteristics. It is concerned with gaining a deeper understanding of what the phenomenon is rather
than why or how it takes place. It, therefore, describes the subject of the research without addressing
why it happens.
3. Causal/Explanatory studies:Causal Research is a type of conclusive research, which attempts to
establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables. Causal Research is widely
employed by several companies. It assists in determining the impact of a change in process and existing
methods. It is easy to narrow down the cause and effect relationship by making sure that both variables
are not affected by any force other than each other. In causal-comparative research, the research subjects
are already in groups because the action or event has already occurred, whereas subjects in experimental
research designs are randomly selected prior to the manipulation of the variables.
 Sampling Design
This subprocess of research design answers the question:
1. From whom or What (target population) does the data need to be collected
2. How and from how many (Cases)
Steps in Sampling Design
 Define the target population and a case
 Define the population parameters
 Identify and evaluate the sample frame
 Define the number of cases needed
 Define the appropriate sampling method
 Define the sampling selection and recruitment protocols
 Define Target Population and Case
 Case – Single element drawn from the target population
Common types of target population in business research
 People(employees, customers, suppliers)
 Organization ( Companies, trade associations, unions)
 Events and happening(trade association meetings, industry conventions)
 Settings and environments( stores, factories, warehouses)
 Texts(Social media post, emails, reports)
Define the Population Parameters
 Population Parameters are summary descriptors ( mean,
variance etc) of variables of interest in the population.
 Sample statistics are descriptors of those same relevant
variables computed from sample data.
 Define the Sampling Frame

 A sampling frame is a researcher’s list or device to specify the population of interest. It’s a
group of components that a researcher can use to select a sample from the population.
 The sampling frame (also known as the “sample frame” or “survey frame”) is indeed the
actual collection of units. A sample has now been taken from this. A basic random sample
gives all units in it an equal probability of being drawn and appearing in the sample.
 Define the Number of Cases
 Sample – A subset of the target population
 Census – All cases within a population
Reason for using sample:
o Lower cost
o Greater speed of data collection
o Availability of population cases
o Greater accuracy of results
 Defining the Sampling Method
 Probability and Non-probability sampling

 Probability sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where a researcher selects

a few criteria and chooses members of a population randomly. All the members have an equal
opportunity to participate in the sample with this selection parameter.

 Non-probability sampling: In non-probability sampling, the researcher randomly chooses

members for research. This sampling method is not a fixed or predefined selection process.
This makes it difficult for all population elements to have equal opportunities to be included in
a sample.
 Probability Sampling
 Simple random sampling: One of the best probability sampling techniques that helps in
saving time and resources is the Simple Random Sampling method. It is a reliable method
of obtaining information where every single member of a population is chosen randomly,
merely by chance. Each individual has the same probability of being chosen to be a part of
a sample.
 Eg- In an organization of 500 employees, if the HR team decides on conducting team-
building activities, they would likely prefer picking chits out of a bowl. In this case, each
of the 500 employees has an equal opportunity of being selected.
 Cluster sampling: Cluster sampling is a method where the researchers divide the entire population into
sections or clusters representing a population. Clusters are identified and included in a sample based on
demographic parameters like age, sex, location, etc. This makes it very simple for a survey creator to derive
effective inferences from the feedback.
Eg: Consider a scenario where an organization is looking to survey the performance of smart phones across
Germany. They can divide the entire country’s population into cities (clusters) and select further towns with
the highest population and also filter those using mobile devices.
 Systematic sampling: Researchers use the systematic sampling method to choose the sample members of a
population at regular intervals. It requires selecting a starting point for the sample and sample size that can be
repeated at regular intervals. This type of sampling method has a predefined range; hence, this sampling
technique is the least time-consuming.
For example, a researcher intends to collect a systematic sample of 500 people in a population of 5000.
He/she numbers each element of the population from 1-5000 and will choose every 10th individual to be a
part of the sample (Total population/ Sample Size = 5000/500 = 10).
 Stratified random sampling: Stratified random sampling is a method in which the researcher divides the
population into smaller groups that don’t overlap but represent the entire population. While sampling, these
groups can be organized, and then draw a sample from each group separately.
 Non-probability sampling
 Convenience sampling: This method depends on the ease of access to subjects such as surveying
customers at a mall or passers-by on a busy street. It is usually termed as convenience
sampling because of the researcher’s ease of carrying it out and getting in touch with the subjects.
Researchers have nearly no authority to select the sample elements, and it’s purely done based on
proximity and not representativeness. This non-probability sampling method is used when there are
time and cost limitations in collecting feedback. In situations with resource limitations, such as the
initial stages of research, convenience sampling is used.
 For example, startups and NGOs usually conduct convenience sampling at a mall to distribute leaflets
of upcoming events or promotion of a cause – they do that by standing at the mall entrance and giving
out pamphlets randomly.
 Purposive Sampling:
• Judgment Sampling
• Quota Sampling
 Snowball Sampling
 Sample size
 Population size
 Margin of error (confidence interval)- The margin of error (confidence interval), is expressed in
terms of mean numbers. You can set how much difference you’ll allow between the mean number
of your sample and the mean number of your population.
 Confidence level- It deals with how confident you want to be that the actual mean falls within
your margin of error. The most common confidence intervals are 90% confident, 95% confident,
and 99% confident.
 Standard deviation(a standard deviation of 0.5 is a safe choice where the figure is unknown)-
This step asks you to estimate how much the responses you receive will vary from each other and
from the mean number. A low standard deviation means that all the values will be clustered around
the mean number, whereas a high standard deviation means they are spread out across a much
wider range with very small and very large outlying figures. Since you haven’t yet run your survey,
a safe choice is a standard deviation of .5 which will help make sure your sample size is large
enough.
 Convert the confidence level into a Z-Score. This table shows the z-scores for the
most common confidence levels:

Confidence level z-score

80% 1.28
85% 1.44
90% 1.65
95% 1.96
99% 2.58
 Calculate sample size (Andrew Fisher’s Formula)

Here is an example calculation:

Say you choose to work with a 95% confidence level, a standard deviation of 0.5, and a
confidence interval (margin of error) of ± 5%, you just need to substitute the values in
the formula:
 ((1.96)2 x .5(.5)) / (.05)2
 (3.8416 x .25) / .0025
 .9604 / .0025
 384.16
 Your sample size should be 385.
 Errors in Sampling
1. Sampling Errors:
The errors arising due to drawing inference about the population on the basis of sample is
termed sampling error.
 Even if most care has been taken in selecting a sample, still the study may not be exactly equal
to the true value in the population.
 Sampling Errors are nonexistent in complete enumeration survey.
 Sample size increases, sampling error decrease.
 If the population is homogeneous the sampling error becomes smaller.
 The Measure of Sampling Error is called Precision of the sampling plan. Therefore by
increasing the population size, precision of the sampling plan can be improved but at the same
time it can results into increase of cost also. So better way of increasing the precision is to
select a better sampling design which has a smaller sampling error.
Biased and Unbiased Errors:
 Error is the difference between the observed value and the true value.
 Errors may be classified as biased errors and unbiased errors.
Biased Errors: Bias errors are also known as systematic errors. They arise
due to the bias of the informants or enumerators or defective measurements.
Unbiased Errors: Unbiased sampling errors are also known as compensatory
errors.The errors that occur without the notice of the investigator are called
unbiased errors. These errors occur due to chance causes (which cannot be
controlled). Here, the ultimate result would be neutralized. If the observations
are large in number then these unbiased errors will not effect the final result.
Calculating Sampling Error
 The sampling error formula is used to calculate the overall sampling error
in statistical analysis. The sampling error is calculated by dividing the
standard deviation of the population by the square root of the size of the
sample, and then multiplying the resultant with the Z-score value, which is
based on the confidence interval.

Sampling Error = Z x (σ /√n)

​where: Z=Z score value based on the confidence interval (approx=1.96)

σ=Population standard deviation
n=Size of the sample​
Example: Mind Laboratories is a research company that wants to calculate the sampling error for one
of its studies. Mind Laboratories' study had a sample size of 100
people. The standard deviation of the population is 0.50. For a 99%
confidence level, the score is 2.58. Mind Laboratories put these values
into the formula for sampling error:
Sampling error = 2.58 x (.50 / √100)
Sampling error = 2.58 x (.50 / 10)
Sampling error = 2.58 x 0.05
Sampling error = 0.12
 2. Non Sampling Errors
 The errors arising mainly at the stages of ascertaining and processing of data are
termed non sampling errors. They occur both in complete enumeration and sample
survey.
 It can occur at every stage of planning and execution of the census survey.
 Factors which leads to Non sampling error:
1. Data collected are inadequate and not consistent with the objective of the survey
2. Inappropriate statistical unit
3. Lack of trained and experienced investigators
4. Errors in representation and summarization of data
Types of Non Sampling Errors
There are different categories of Non sampling errors.
 Population-Specific Error
A population-specific error occurs when a researcher doesn't understand who to survey.
 Selection Error
Selection error occurs when the survey is self-selected, or when only those participants who
are interested in the survey respond to the questions. Researchers can attempt to overcome
selection error by finding ways to encourage participation.
 Sample Frame Error
A sample frame error occurs when a sample is selected from the wrong population data.
 Non-response Error
A non-response error occurs when a useful response is not obtained from the surveys because
researchers were unable to contact potential respondents (or potential respondents refused to
respond).
 Measurement of Errors
 Absolute Error: The difference between the actual value and the estimated value
of an item is called absolute error.
For example, if a scale states 90 kg but you know your true weight is 89 kg, then the
scale has an absolute error of 90 – 89 = 1 kg.
 Relative Error: Relative error is the ratio of the absolute error to the estimated
value. The absolute error gives how large the error is, while the relative
error gives how large the error is relative to the correct value.
Suppose, the actual length of an eraser is 35 mm and measured value is 34.13. Now,
the absolute error = (35-34.13) mm = 0.87 mm.
So, the relative error = absolute error/actual length
= 0.87/35
= 0.02485
 Relative error when multiplied by 100 is called percentage error.
A literature review consists of an overview, a summary, and an evaluation
(“critique”) of the current state of knowledge about a specific area of
research. It may also include a discussion of methodological issues and
suggestions for future research.

 A literature review is an assessment of a body of research that addresses a

research question.
 An organized written presentation of what has been published on a topic by
scholars(Burns and Grove, 2005)
 An account of what has been published by accredited scholars and
researchers (Taylor,2011)
 According to Abdellah and Levine, the material gathered in literature
review should be included as a part of the research data, since it influences
the problem and research design, and it can be used to compare the results
and findings for the current study.
Characteristics of a Good Review of Literature
 It must be comprehensive
 Include up-to-date references
 It Should be systematic
 It should be free from bias
 Factors Affecting Review of Literature

 Researchers Background
 Complexity of the research project
 Availability of resources
 Time frame
Purpose of Review of Literature
 To provide background information about a research topic.
 To establish the importance of a topic.
 To demonstrate familiarity with a topic/problem.
 To “carve out a space” for further work and allow you to position yourself in a scholarly
conversation.
 It helps to identify what is already known about the research problem
 It helps to build background knowledge
 Many published studies contain recommendation for future research, from which we can get
idea for a new research study.
 It helps to narrow down the research problem
 It helps the researcher to identify the research gap
 Helps the researcher to get acquainted with the relevant theory, strategies, tools and instruments
for conducting the research.
 To know the different ways of conducting the research study.
Characteristics of Literature
Review
1. Focus:
The focus of a review concerns the material that is of central interest to the
reviewer.
Most reviews center on one or more than one of the following four areas:
i. Research outcomes
ii. Research methods
iii. Theories
iv. Practices or applications.
2. Goals.
 Goals imply what the author hopes the review will accomplish. The most obvious
goal for a review is to integrate or synthesize past literature that is believed to
relate to the same issue. In fact, this goal is so pervasive among reviews that it is
difficult to find reviews that do not attempt to synthesize works at some level.
 There are numerous activities identified by past researchers that could be
considered as integrative and that are often performed by literature reviewers. These
include:
i. Formulating general statements from multiple specific instances, a type of synthesis
common in research reviews
ii. Resolving the conflict between contradictory ideas or statements of fact by
proposing a new conception that accounts for the inconsistency
iii. Bridging the gap between theories or disciplines by creating a common linguistic
framework.
3. Perspective
A third characteristic that distinguishes among reviews concerns how the reviewer's
point of view influences the discussion of the literature.
 Two roles for the reviewer's perspective can be identified
i. Neutral representation
The reviewer attempts, at least initially, to present arguments or evidence for and
against different interpretations of the literature. The reviewer tries to distill the
relevant works and to allocate attention to different theories, methods, issues, or
outcomes in a manner that reflects their relative prominence in the literature
ii. Espousal of position.
With regard to the second perspective, the viewpoint of the reviewer plays a more
active role in the editorial process. Here, the reviewer undertakes the task of
accumulating and synthesizing the literature in the service of demonstrating the
value of a particular point of view.
4. Coverage.
The next characteristic, coverage, is probably the most distinct aspect of literature
reviewing. The extent to which reviewers find and include relevant works in their
paper is the single activity that sets this expository form apart from all others.
 The typology distinguishes between four types of coverage
i. The first level, exhaustive coverage, means the reviewer intends to be
comprehensive in the presentation of works relevant to the topic under
consideration
ii. The second type of coverage also bases conclusions on entire literature, but only
a selected sample of works is actually described in the paper
iii. Some reviewers will opt for a third coverage strategy--presenting works that are
representative of many other works in a field. A sample is presented that typifies
larger groups of material.
iv. In the final coverage strategy, the reviewer concentrates on works that have been
central or pivotal to a topic area. This may include materials that initiated a line of
investigation or thinking, changed how questions were framed, introduced new
methods, engendered important debate, or performed a heuristic function for
other scholars.
5. Organization.
 How a paper is organized is considered as the fifth characteristic that
differentiates research reviews. Reviews can be arranged:
i. Historically, so that topics are introduced in the chronological order in
which they appeared in the literature
ii. Conceptually, so that works relating to the same abstract ideas appear
together
iii. Methodologically, so that works employing similar methods are grouped
as subtopics
6. Audience
 Finally, the intended audiences of the various reviews can differ from one
another. Reviews can be written for groups of specialized researchers, general
researchers, practitioners, policymakers, or the general public. The audience
distinction probably manifests itself most clearly through the writing style of
the reviewer.
 Types of Literature Review
 Traditional or Narrative Review of Literature
 Systematic Review of Literature
 Meta Analysis
 Meta Synthesis
 Stages of Literature Review
 Annotated Bibliography
 Thematic Organization
 More refined reading
 Write Individual Sections
 Integrate Sections
 Citation and Reference
 Both are associated with academic texts and are pointers to sources of information.
 The two are also linked, with the citation (within the main body of the text) pointing to the
corresponding reference (often added to the end of the main text, for example, in a reference list of
bibliography).
Note the citations below, highlighted in bold:

“We have yet fully to understand how typography should be designed when glance reading competes
with other cognitive tasks, such as driving while using an in-vehicle display (Reimer et al. 2014) or
walking while reading on a mobile device (Chen and Lin 2016).”
References

Chen, C.-M., and Y.-J. Lin. 2016. “Effects of Different Text Display Types on Reading Comprehension,
Sustained Attention and Cognitive Load in Mobile Reading Contexts.” Interactive Learning
Environments 24 (3): 553–571.

Reimer, B., B. Mehler, J. Dobres, J.F. Coughlin, S. Matteson, D. Gould, N. Chahine, and V. Levantovsky.
2014. “Assessing the Impact of Typeface Design in a Text-Rich Automotive User Interface.” Ergonomics 57
(11): 1643–1658.
 A citation style is a set of guidelines on how to cite sources in your academic writing.
You always need a citation whenever you quote, paraphrase, or summarize a source to
avoid plagiarism.
Types of citation: Parenthetical, note, numerical
 The clearest identifying characteristic of any citation style is how the citations in the
text are presented. There are three main approaches:
 Parenthetical citations: You include identifying details of the source in parentheses in
the text—usually the author’s last name and the publication date, plus a page number if
relevant (author-date). Sometimes the publication date is omitted (author-page).
 Numerical citations: You include a number in brackets or in superscript, which
corresponds to an entry in your numbered reference list.
 Note citations: You include a full citation in a footnote or endnote, which is indicated
in the text with a superscript number or symbol.
Which citation style should I use?
Discipline Typical citation style(s)
Economics Harvard
Engineering & IT IEEE
Chicago notes and
Humanities
bibliography; Harvard; MLA
Law Bluebook; OSCOLA
Medicine AMA; NLM; Vancouver
Political science APSA
Psychology APA
ACS; Chicago author-date;
CSE citation-name or citation-
Sciences
sequence; CSE name-year;
Harvard
AAA; APA; ASA; Chicago
Social sciences
author-date
 Parenthetical citation styles
 APA Style is defined by the 7th edition of the Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association. It was designed for use in psychology, but today it’s widely used across various
disciplines, especially in the social sciences.
 APA reference entry
Wagemann, J. & Weger, U. (2021). Perceiving the other self: An experimental first-person account of
nonverbal social interaction. The American Journal of Psychology, 134(4), 441–461.
https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.134.4.0441
 APA in-text citation
(Wagemann & Weger, 2021)
 APA 7th Citation Examples

Material Type In-text Citation Bibliography

A book (Sapolsky, 2017) Sapolsky, R. M. (2017). Behave: The biology of humans at our
best and worst. Penguin Books.
Chapter in an edited book (Dillard, 2020) Dillard, J. P. (2020). Currents in the study of persuasion. In M. B.
(If the chapter is from an authored book, Oliver, A. A. Raney, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Media effects: Advances
use the book citation) in theory and research (4th ed., pp. 115–129). Routledge.

An article in a print journal (Weinstein, 2009) Weinstein, J. (2009). “The market in Plato’s Republic.” Classical
Philology, 104(4), 439-458.

An article in an electronic journal (Grady et al., 2019) Grady, J. S., Her, M., Moreno, G., Perez, C., & Yelinek, J. (2019).
Emotions in storybooks: A comparison of storybooks that
represent ethnic and racial groups in the United States. Psychology
of Popular Media Culture, 8(3),
207–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000185

A website (Bologna, 2019) Bologna, C. (2019, October 31). Why some people with anxiety
love watching horror movies.
HuffPost. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/anxiety-love-watching-
horror-movies_l_5d277587e4b02a5a5d57b59e
 Chicago author-date
 Chicago author-date style is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago
Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the sciences and social sciences.
 Chicago reference entry
Encarnação, João, and Gonçalo Calado. 2018. “Effects of Recreational Diving on
Early Colonization Stages of an Artificial Reef in North-East Atlantic.” Journal of
Coastal Conservation 22, no. 6 (December): 1209–1216.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/45380397.
 Chicago author-date citation
(Encarnação and Calado 2018)
 MLA (Modern Language Association)
 MLA style is the official style of the Modern Language Association, defined in the
MLA Handbook (9th edition). It’s widely used across various humanities
disciplines. Unlike most parenthetical citation styles, it’s author-page rather than
author-date.
 MLA Works Cited entry
Davidson, Clare. “Reading in Bed with Troilus and Criseyde.” The Chaucer Review,
vol. 55, no. 2, Apr. 2020, pp. 147–170.
https://doi.org/10.5325/chaucerrev.55.2.0147. MLA in-text citation (Davidson 155)
Numerical citation styles
 IEEE
 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) provides guidelines for
citing your sources with IEEE in-text citations that consist of numbers enclosed in
brackets, corresponding to entries in a numbered reference list. This style is used in
various engineering and IT disciplines.
 IEEE reference entry
1. J. Ive, A. Max, and F. Yvon, “Reassessing the proper place of man and machine in
translation: A pre-translation scenario,” Mach. Transl., vol. 32, no. 4, pp. 279–308,
Dec. 2018, doi: 10.1007/s10590-018-9223-9.
Note citation styles

 Chicago notes and bibliography

 Chicago notes and bibliography is one of the two citation styles presented in the Chicago
Manual of Style (17th edition). It’s used mainly in the humanities.
 Chicago bibliography entry
Best, Jeremy. “Godly, International, and Independent: German Protestant Missionary
Loyalties before World War I.” Central European History 47, no. 3 (September 2014):
585–611. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938914001654.
Chicago footnote
1. Jeremy Best, “Godly, International, and Independent: German Protestant Missionary
Loyalties before World War I,” Central European History 47, no. 3 (September 2014):
599. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008938914001654.
 Turabian Style
Author last name, First name. “Article Title.” Journal Name
Volume, no. Issue (Month or Season Year): Page range. DOI
or URL.
Turabian bibliography Effland, Ann. “Small Farms/Family Farms: Tracing a History
of Definitions and Meanings.” Agricultural History 95, no. 2
(Spring 2021): 313–330.
https://doi.org/10.3098/ah.2021.095.2.313.

Author first name Last name, “Article Title,” Journal Name

Volume, no. Issue (Month or Season Year): Page number(s).
DOI or URL.
Full note 1. Ann Effland, “Small Farms/Family Farms: Tracing a
History of Definitions and Meanings,” Agricultural History
95, no. 2 (Spring 2021): 315.
https://doi.org/10.3098/ah.2021.095.2.313.

Author last name, “Shortened Title,” Page number(s).

Short note
2. Effland, “Small Farms/Family Farms,” 325.