Research

Design
UNIT 3
 What is a Research Design?
 The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to
integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical
way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of
data.
 The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained
enables you to effectively address the research problem logically and as
unambiguously as possible. In social sciences research, obtaining information
relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of
evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately
describe and assess meaning related to an observable phenomenon.
 Key Features of Research design
 Neutrality: When planning your study, you may need to think about the details you are
going to collect. The results shown in the study should be fair and impartial. Understand
the ideas about the last scores tested and the conclusions from most people and
consider those who agree with the results obtained.
 Reliability: With regular research, the researcher involved expects the same results
regularly. Research design should be developed in a way that good research questions
are developed and quality results are ensured. You will only be able to access the
expected results if your design is reliable.
 Performance: There are many measuring tools available. However, the only valid
measurement tools are those that assist the researcher in measuring results according
to the research purpose. The list of questions created from this project will be valid.
 General practice: The effect of your design should apply to people and not just to the
restricted sample. A comprehensive design means that your survey can be done on any
part of the people with the same accuracy. The above factors affect the way
respondents respond to research questions and therefore all of the above factors should
be balanced in good design. The researcher must have a clear understanding of the
different types of study design in order to choose which model to use in the study.
 Qualitative: Quality research helps in understanding the problem and to develop
hypothesis. Researchers rely on high-quality research methods that conclude “why” a
certain idea exists and what “responders” say.
 Quantitative: A quantitative study is one of the situations in which statistical
conclusions are arrived at on the basis of collected data. Numbers provide a better idea
of how to make critical business decisions. Research is needed for the growth of any
organisation. The information taken from the data and the analysis of the hard data is
very effective in making decisions related to the future of the business.
 Components of Research Design

 https://www.geektonight.com/what-is-research-design/
Types of Research Design
 Descriptive vs Explanatory vs
Exploratory
 Descriptive research– describes or defines a particular
phenomenon

 Explanatory research– explains why particular phenomena work in

the way that they do, answers “why” questions

 Exploratory research– conducted during the early stages of a

project, usually when a researcher wants to test the feasibility of
conducting a more extensive study
 Exploratory Research
 Conducted in the early stages of examining a topic.
 Tests the feasibility of a more extensive study.
 Helps researchers understand the "lay of the land" with respect to the
topic.
 Appropriate when there is limited prior research on the subject.
 Aids in choosing data collection methods, approaching research subjects,
and formulating research questions.
 Satisfies curiosity about a topic, especially in the absence of existing
research.
 Descriptive Research
 Aims to describe or define a particular phenomenon.
 Provides a detailed account of the characteristics or patterns of a
subject.
 Useful for understanding what a phenomenon is.
 Focuses on describing aspects such as usage patterns, behaviors,
or attributes.
 Example: Describing college students' gadget usage patterns.
 Explanatory Research
 Seeks to explain the causes and effects of a phenomenon.
 Answers "why" questions about why something happens.
 Investigates the underlying reasons behind observed phenomena.
 Often follows exploratory and descriptive research phases.
 Involves identifying causal relationships between variables.
 Example: Understanding why college students become addicted
to electronic gadgets, exploring factors like family history and
extracurricular activities.
 Experimental research design
 Experimental research design is a scientific approach used to
investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables. It
involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables
while controlling other factors to observe their impact on a
dependent variable.
 Experimental research design is often considered the gold
standard in establishing causal relationships in scientific research,
as it allows researchers to control and manipulate variables to
isolate the effects of interest. However, it requires careful
planning, ethical considerations, and attention to detail to ensure
valid and reliable results.
 Steps of Experimental Research
Design
 Hypothesis: Start with a clear research question and develop a hypothesis that states
the expected relationship between the independent and dependent variables.
 Independent Variable: Identify and define the variable that you intend to manipulate
or change in the experiment. This is the factor you believe will have an effect on the
dependent variable.
 Dependent Variable: Determine the variable that you will measure to assess the
outcomes or effects of the experiment. It should be sensitive to changes in the
independent variable.
 Control Group: Create a control group that does not receive the experimental
treatment (or receives a placebo) to serve as a baseline for comparison.
 Experimental Group: Establish one or more experimental groups that receive the
treatment or manipulation being studied.
 Random Assignment: Randomly assign participants to either the control group or one
of the experimental groups to minimize bias and ensure that the groups are
comparable.
 Pre-Test: Collect baseline data or measurements from all groups before
introducing the independent variable.
 Treatment/Manipulation: Implement the treatment or manipulation to the
experimental group(s) while keeping all other conditions as consistent as
possible.
 Post-Test: After the treatment or manipulation, measure the dependent
variable(s) in all groups to assess the effects of the independent variable.
 Data Analysis: Analyze the data using statistical methods to determine if there
are significant differences between groups and to draw conclusions about the
hypothesis.
 Conclusion: Based on the analysis, draw conclusions about whether the
independent variable had a statistically significant effect on the dependent
variable and whether the hypothesis was supported.
 Replication: For robustness and validity, consider replicating the experiment with
different samples or under different conditions to confirm the results.
 Non – Experimental Research
Design
 Non-experimental research design is an approach used in
scientific research to study phenomena without direct
manipulation of independent variables.
 Unlike experimental research, non-experimental research does not
involve interventions or control groups.
 Instead, it focuses on observing, describing, and understanding
relationships between variables as they naturally occur.
 Types of Non- Experimental
research
 Descriptive Research: This type of research aims to describe and document the characteristics,
behaviors, or conditions of a particular phenomenon or group of individuals. Observations,
surveys, content analysis, and case studies are common methods used in descriptive research.
 Correlational Research: Correlational research examines the relationships between two or more
variables without manipulating them. It assesses whether changes in one variable are associated
with changes in another variable. Correlation coefficients, such as Pearson's r, are often used to
quantify these relationships.
 Cross-Sectional Studies: In cross-sectional studies, data is collected from participants at a single
point in time. These studies are used to explore relationships, differences, or patterns among
variables in a specific population.
 Longitudinal Studies: Longitudinal studies involve collecting data from the same group of
individuals over an extended period of time. This allows researchers to track changes and
developments in variables over time and study trends and patterns.
 Surveys and Questionnaires: Surveys and questionnaires are used to collect data from a
sample of participants by asking them a series of standardized questions. This method is
often employed in opinion research, social sciences, and public health studies.
 Qualitative Research: Qualitative research focuses on understanding the experiences,
perspectives, and meanings attributed to a phenomenon. Methods such as interviews,
focus groups, content analysis, and ethnography are used to gather rich, descriptive data.
 Case Studies: Case studies involve in-depth examination of a single individual, group,
organization, or event. Researchers gather detailed information to gain insights and
understanding about specific cases.
 Archival Research: Archival research involves the analysis of existing records, documents,
or data sources to answer research questions. This approach is common in historical
research, economics, and social sciences.
 Comparative Research: Comparative research involves the comparison of two or more
groups, cultures, regions, or time periods to identify similarities, differences, or patterns. It
aims to understand variations among variables in different contexts.
 Content Analysis: Content analysis is used to systematically analyze and interpret the
content of written, verbal, or visual materials, such as documents, texts, media, or
communication messages.
 Characteristics of a cross-
sectional study
 The study takes place at a single point in time
 It does not involve manipulating variables
 It allows researchers to look at numerous characteristics at once
(age, income, gender, etc.)
 It's often used to look at the prevailing characteristics in a given
population
 It can provide information about what is happening in a current
population
 When to use a cross-sectional
Design
 You want to know how many families with children in New York City are currently low-
income so you can estimate how much money is required to fund a free lunch program
in public schools. Because all you need to know is the current number of low-income
families, a cross-sectional study should provide you with all the data you require.
 Sometimes a cross-sectional study is the best choice for practical reasons – for
instance, if you only have the time or money to collect cross-sectional data, or if the
only data you can find to answer your research question was gathered at a single
point in time.
 As cross-sectional studies are cheaper and less time-consuming than many other
types of study, they allow you to easily collect data that can be used as a basis for
further research.
 Advantages
 Because you only collect data at a single point in time, cross-
sectional studies are relatively cheap and less time-consuming
than other types of research.
 Cross-sectional studies allow you to collect data from a large pool
of subjects and compare differences between groups.
 Cross-sectional studies capture a specific moment in time.
National censuses, for instance, provide a snapshot of conditions
in that country at that time.
 Disadvantages
 It is difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships using cross-sectional
studies, since they only represent a one-time measurement of both the alleged
cause and effect.
 Since cross-sectional studies only study a single moment in time, they cannot
be used to analyze behavior over a period of time or establish long-term trends.
 The timing of the cross-sectional snapshot may be unrepresentative of behavior
of the group as a whole. For instance, imagine you are looking at the impact of
psychotherapy on an illness like depression. If the depressed individuals in your
sample began therapy shortly before the data collection, then it might appear
that therapy causes depression even if it is effective in the long term.
 What Is a Longitudinal Study?
 A longitudinal study is a type of correlational research study that involves
looking at variables over an extended period of time. This research can
take place over a period of weeks, months, or even years. In some cases,
longitudinal studies can last several decades.
 Data is first collected at the outset of the study, and may then be
repeatedly gathered throughout the length of the study. Doing this allows
researchers to observe how variables change over time.
 The oldest recorded longitudinal study on growth was conducted in the
18th century by Count Philibert Gueneau de Montbeillard. He measured
his son every six months and published the information in the
encyclopedia "Histoire Naturelle.
 Types of Longitudinal Studies
 Panel study:
Sampling of a cross-section of individuals
 Cohort study:
Selecting a group based on a specific event, such as birth,
geographic location, or historical experience
 Retrospective study:
Reviewing historical information such as medical records
 Advantages
 Longitudinal studies allow researchers to follow their subjects in
real time. This means you can better establish the real sequence
of events, allowing you insight into cause-and-effect relationships.
 Longitudinal studies also allow repeated observations of the same
individual over time. This means any changes in the outcome
variable cannot be attributed to differences between individuals.
 Prospective longitudinal studies eliminate the risk of recall bias, or
the inability to correctly recall past events.
 Disadvantages
 Longitudinal studies are time-consuming and often more
expensive than other types of studies, so they require significant
commitment and resources to be effective.
 Attrition, which occurs when participants drop out of a study, is
common in longitudinal studies and may result in invalid
conclusions.
Cross-sectional vs longitudinal
 Cross-sectional vs longitudinal
 Evaluates variable at single  Measures variable over time
point in time  Requires more resources
 Participants less likely to  More expensive
drop out
 Subject to selective attrition
 Uses new participant(s) with
each study
 Follows same participants
over time
 Cross-sectional vs longitudinal
Example:
You want to study the impact that a low-carb diet has on diabetes. You
first conduct a cross-sectional study with a sample of diabetes patients to
see if there are differences in health outcomes like weight or blood sugar
in those who follow a low-carb diet. You discover that the diet correlates
with weight loss in younger patients, but not older ones.
You then decide to design a longitudinal study to further examine this link
in younger patients. Without first conducting the cross-sectional study,
you would not have known to focus on younger patients in particular.
 Case- study
 A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a
person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case
studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and
business research.
 A case study research design usually involves qualitative
methods, but quantitative methods are sometimes also used.
 Case studies are good for describing, comparing, evaluating and
understanding different aspects of a research problem.
 When to do a case study
 A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to
gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific
real-world subject.
 It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and
implications of the case.
 You might use just one complex case study where you explore a
single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to
compare and illuminate different aspects of your research
problem.
 Comparative Study Design
 Comparative research essentially compares two groups in an
attempt to draw a conclusion about them.
 Researchers attempt to identify and analyze similarities and
differences between groups, and these studies are most often
cross-national, comparing two separate people groups.
 Comparative studies can be used to increase understanding
between cultures and societies and create a foundation for
compromise and collaboration. These studies contain both
quantitative and qualitative research methods
 For example
To find out the difference in wages between men and women,
researchers have to make a comparative study of wages earned by
both genders across various professions, hierarchies and locations.

Note: None of the variables can be influenced and cause-effect

relationship has to be established with a persuasive logical
argument.
 Drawbacks
 Inability to Manipulate Variables: Causal-comparative research cannot manipulate
or control independent variables, making it challenging to establish causation.
 Lack of Randomization: Unlike experimental research, causal-comparative studies
lack random assignment of subjects to groups, which can lead to potential bias.
 Subject-Selection Bias: Researchers may not have control over subject selection,
posing a risk to the study's internal validity.
 Loss of Subjects: Over the course of the study, there may be a loss of subjects for
various reasons (e.g., dropout, attrition), potentially affecting the study's validity.
 Location Influences: Differences in study locations or settings can
introduce confounding variables and affect the generalizability of
findings.
 Poor Subject Attitudes: Significant differences in subject attitudes
or motivations across groups can introduce bias and impact the
study's validity.
 Testing Threats: Repeated testing of subjects can introduce
threats to internal validity, as initial measurements may affect
subsequent ones.
Historical, Narrative, Ethnographies
research Design
Qualitative Research Designs
 Historical Design
 The historical design in research is non-invasive of the culture studied. The act of
research does not affect the results of the study. Primary historical sources include:
• Speeches, Old letters, journals, or diaries
• Comics or newspaper articles, Songs of the time period
• Legislation or court decisions passed during the period studied
• Written accounts of interviews or autobiographies
• Artifacts or photographs
 Information written after the historical event by those who did not actually see the
event are considered secondary sources.
 Purpose of Historical Design
 The purpose of historical research design is to gather, verify, and integrate
data from the past to gain an understanding of the events and defend or
refute a hypothesis given about the time period.
 The four basic methods used by historians to accomplish this purpose are:
• Source criticism: The evaluation of data in terms of validity, reliability,
and relevancy.
• Time series analysis
• Use of comparative methods
• Counterfactual analysis: The exploration of what occurred, and what
might have occurred given other circumstances.
 Sources for Historical Research
The historical research method collects information from primary
sources and secondary sources.
 Primary sources include all types of first-hand or eyewitness
information, including original documents or eyewitness accounts.
 Secondary sources are descriptions or accounts by sources that
were not actually present at the event. Secondary sources also
include a textbook analysis of the event or theory.
 Steps of conducting historical
research
 Preliminary Research: Gathering data from primary and secondary
sources
 Formulation of an idea or working hypothesis
 Analysis of sources of data: Determining accuracy, verifying events
 Analysis of the data to support or reject a hypothesis.
 Formulate a thesis statement: What was learned from the data collected?
 Writing a historical account: Synthesis of the data collected and what was
learned
 Narrative Research Design
 A literary form of qualitative research, narrative research is all about
collecting and telling a story or stories (in detail).
 Researchers write narratives about experiences of individuals, describe a
life experience, and discuss the meaning of the experience with the
individual.
 Usually, a narrative research design is focused on studying an individual
person. The researcher becomes the interpreter of the individual's stories,
as opposed to a community.
 When?
 When someone is willing to tell their story, it follows a chronology,
and the researcher wants to write it.
 The writer can write in a persuasive, literary form while
presenting a qualitative approach.
 The researcher seeks out information through interviews, family
stories, journals, field notes, letters, autobiography,
conversations, photos and other artifacts.
 Methods
• Interview
• Qualitative survey
• Recordings of oral history (documents can be used as support for
correlation and triangulation of information mentioned in interview.)
• Focus groups can be used where the focus is a small group or
community.
More:
• https://delvetool.com/blog/narrativeanalysis
 Example

• What is it like to live with cerebral palsy?

• What are the difficulties of living in a wheelchair?
 Kean, B., Oprescu, F., Gray, M., & Burkett, B. (2018). Commitment
to physical activity and health: A case study of a paralympic gold
medallist. Disability and Rehabilitation, 40(17), 2093-2097.
doi:10.1080/09638288.2017.1323234 https://doi-org.ezproxy-
f.deakin.edu.au/10.1080/09638288.2017.1323234
 Strengths
 Reveals in-depth detail of a situation or life experience.
 Can reveal historically significant issues not elsewhere recorded.
 Narrative research was considered a way to democratise the
documentation and lived experience of a wider gamut of society.
In the past only the rich could afford a biographer to have their life
experience recorded, narrative research gave voice to
marginalised people and their lived experience.
 Limitations
 The researcher must be heavily embedded in the topic with a broad understanding of the
subject’s life experience in order to effectively and realistically represent the subject’s life
experience.
 There is a lot of data to be worked through making this a time-consuming method beyond
even the interview process itself.
 Subject’s will focus on their lived experience and not comment on the greater social
movements at work at the time. For example, how the Global Financial Crisis affected their
lives, not what caused the Global Financial Crisis.
 This research method relies heavily on the memory of the subject. Therefore, triangulation
of the information is recommended such as asking the question in a different way, at a
later date, looking for correlating documentation or interviewing similarly related
participants.
 Ethnographic Research
 Ethnographic research is a qualitative research method used to
study and document the culture, behaviors, beliefs, and social
interactions of a particular group of people.
 It involves direct observation and participation in the daily life and
activities of the group being studied, often for an extended period
of time.

 Eg: Grounded Theory Approach

 When to conduct?
 When exploring a new or understudied topic.
 When studying cultural practices and beliefs.
 When investigating complex social phenomena.
 When focusing on marginalized communities.
 How to conduct?
 Choose a Research Question: Identify a research question that you want to
explore. It should be focused and specific, but also open-ended to allow for
flexibility and exploration.
 Select a research site: Choose a site or group that is relevant to your research
question. This could be a workplace, a community, a social movement, or any
other social setting where you can observe and interact with people.
 Obtain ethical clearance: Obtain ethical clearance from your institution or
organization before beginning your research. This involves ensuring that your
research is conducted in an ethical and responsible manner, and that the
privacy and confidentiality of participants are protected.
 Conduct observations: Observe the people in your research site and take detailed
notes. This involves being present and engaged in the social setting, participating
in activities, and taking note of the behaviors, interactions, and social norms that
you observe.
 Conduct interviews: Conduct interviews with people in the research site to gain
deeper insights into their experiences, perspectives, and beliefs. This could involve
structured or semi-structured interviews, focus groups, or other forms of data
collection.
 Analyze data: Analyze the data that you have collected, looking for themes and
patterns that emerge. This involves immersing yourself in the data and interpreting
it within the social and cultural context of the research site.
 Write up findings: Write up your findings in a clear and concise manner, using
quotes and examples to illustrate your key points. This may involve creating
narratives, tables, or other visual representations of your findings.
 Reflect on your process: Reflect on your process and methods, thinking about what
worked well and what could be improved for future research.
 Application of Ethnographic
Research
1. Informing Policy and Practice:
- Provides insights into marginalized groups' experiences for policymaking in various
fields.
- Helps improve practices in areas like healthcare, education, and social services.
2. Developing Theories and Concepts:
- Contributes to the development of social and cultural theories in academic disciplines.
- Offers detailed accounts of social and cultural phenomena.
3. Improving Product Design and Marketing:
- Aids in understanding consumer behavior and preferences.
- Informs product and service design and marketing strategies.
Studying Workplace Culture:
Offers insights into organizational norms and practices. Informs
efforts to enhance workplace culture and employee satisfaction.
Examining Social Movements:
- Provides an understanding of social movement practices and
beliefs.
- Aids in addressing social and political issues.
Studying Healthcare Practices:
- Offers insights into healthcare practices and patient experiences.
- Informs efforts to enhance healthcare delivery and patient
outcomes.
Mixed Method Study Designs
Sequential, Concurrent and
Transformative
 Sequential Design
 In a sequential design, you conduct one phase of research (either
qualitative or quantitative) followed by the other.
 The sequence can be either qualitative to quantitative (QUAN ->
qual) or qualitative to quantitative (qual -> QUAN).
 This design allows for a deeper exploration of a phenomenon
initially using qualitative methods and then quantifying the
findings.
 Concurrent Design
 In a concurrent design, you collect and analyze both qualitative
and quantitative data concurrently or simultaneously.
 This approach allows for the comparison and integration of
qualitative and quantitative data at various stages of the research
process.
 Transformative Design
 The transformative design is less common but focuses on using
mixed methods research to bring about positive change or
transformation in a particular context.
 It often involves collaboration between researchers and
stakeholders and seeks to address practical and societal issues.
Quantitative research Methods in
Social Work Research
 Why we need sampling?
 Statistical Power: Sampling enhances statistical power by allowing
researchers to work with a manageable number of study subjects from
a larger population. This increases the probability of obtaining sample
results that closely represent the true findings in the population.
 Cost Reduction: Sampling helps reduce study costs significantly. In
cases where a large population is involved, it would be financially
impractical to include all subjects in the study. By selecting an
appropriate sample size, researchers can achieve meaningful results
while minimizing expenses.
 Standard Error Control: Sampling techniques are used to control the standard
error of results. Standard error reflects the average difference between calculated
parameters and true population values. Smaller standard errors indicate greater
accuracy, and researchers aim to achieve this by selecting suitable sample sizes.

 Choice of Data Collection Methods: The size of the sample often dictates the
most appropriate data collection methods. Larger samples may necessitate
methods like telephone interviews or questionnaires, while smaller samples might
benefit from observational data collection. The choice of method can impact data
quality and accuracy.

 Selection of Relevant Subpopulations: Sampling allows researchers to focus on

specific subpopulations that possess important variables of interest. This enables
researchers to exclude irrelevant subpopulations and concentrate their efforts on
those most likely to provide valuable insights.
 Probability Sampling
Probability sampling means that every member of the population
has a chance of being selected. It is mainly used in quantitative
research. If you want to produce results that are representative of
the whole population, probability sampling techniques are the most
valid choice.
For example, in a population of 1000 members, every member will
have a 1/1000 chance of being selected to be a part of a sample.
Probability sampling eliminates sampling bias in the population and
allows all members to be included in the sample.
 Simple Random Sampling
In a simple random sample, every member of the population has an
equal chance of being selected. Your sampling frame should include
the whole population.
To conduct this type of sampling, you can use tools like random
number generators or other techniques that are based entirely on
chance.
Example: Simple random sampling
You want to select a simple random sample of 1000 employees of a
social media marketing company. You assign a number to every
employee in the company database from 1 to 1000, and use a
random number generator to select 100 numbers.
 Systematic Random Sampling
 Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling, but it
is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of the
population is listed with a number, but instead of randomly
generating numbers, individuals are chosen at regular intervals.
Example:
All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical order. From
the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a starting point: number
6. From number 6 onwards, every 10th person on the list is selected
(6, 16, 26, 36, and so on), and you end up with a sample of 100
people.
 Stratified Random Sampling
 Stratified sampling involves dividing the population into subpopulations
that may differ in important ways. It allows you draw more precise
conclusions by ensuring that every subgroup is properly represented in
the sample.
 To use this sampling method, you divide the population into subgroups
(called strata) based on the relevant characteristic (e.g., gender identity,
age range, income bracket, job role).
 Based on the overall proportions of the population, you calculate how
many people should be sampled from each subgroup. Then you use
random or systematic sampling to select a sample from each subgroup.
 Example
 The company has 800 female employees and 200 male
employees. You want to ensure that the sample reflects the
gender balance of the company, so you sort the population into
two strata based on gender. Then you use random sampling on
each group, selecting 80 women and 20 men, which gives you a
representative sample of 100 people.
 Cluster sampling
 Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into subgroups, but each
subgroup should have similar characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of
sampling individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire subgroups.
 If it is practically possible, you might include every individual from each sampled
cluster. If the clusters themselves are large, you can also sample individuals
from within each cluster using one of the techniques above. This is called
multistage sampling.
 This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed populations, but there
is more risk of error in the sample, as there could be substantial differences
between clusters. It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are really
representative of the whole population.
 Example: Cluster sampling
 The company has offices in 10 cities across the country (all with
roughly the same number of employees in similar roles). You don’t
have the capacity to travel to every office to collect your data, so
you use random sampling to select 3 offices – these are your
clusters.
 Nonprobability sampling
Nonprobability sampling methods are often used
in qualitative research; also are used in
quantitative studies when researchers are
unable to use probability selection methods.
With non probability sampling we have no idea about
the representativeness of the sample and no idea
about odds of being incorrect in generalizing to the
population
 Convenience Sampling
 A convenience sample simply includes the individuals who happen
to be most accessible to the researcher.
 This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial data, but
there is no way to tell if the sample is representative of the
population, so it can’t produce generalizable results. Convenience
samples are at risk for both sampling bias and selection bias.
 Example
 You are researching opinions about student support services in
your university, so after each of your classes, you ask your fellow
students to complete a survey on the topic. This is a convenient
way to gather data, but as you only surveyed students taking the
same classes as you at the same level, the sample is not
representative of all the students at your university.
 Availability Sampling
Elements are selected for availability
sampling because they’re available or easy to
find.
Thus this sampling method is also known as a
haphazard, accidental, or convenience sample.
Examples:
•Interviewing people •Magazine surveys
on a street corner or •Observing
at the mall conversations in an
•Surveying students in on-line chat room
a classroom
 Quota Sampling
•To select a quota sample comprising
300 students in Campus using three
control characteristics: gender, age and
religion.
•Here, the three control characteristics
are considered independently of one
another. In order to calculate the desired
number of sample elements possessing
the various attributes of the specified
control characteristics, the distribution
pattern of the general population in
Campus in terms of each control
characteristics is examined.
 Quota Sampling

Control
Characteristics Population Distribution Sample Elements
.

Gender: Male ............. 50.7% Male 300x 50.7% = 152

............ Female .......... 49.3% Female 300 x 49.3% = 148

Age:..... 15-19 years ... 13.4% 20-29 years 300 x 13.4% = 40

............ 20-24 years ... 53.3% 30-39 years 300 x 52.3% = 157
............ 25 years & over 33.3% 40 years & over 300x 34.3% = 103

Religion: Hinduism ...... 76.4% Hunduism 300 x 76.4% = 229

............ Budhism ....... 14.8% Budhism 300x 14.8% = 44
............ Islam ............. 6.6% Islam 300 x 6.6% = 20
............ Others ........... 2.2% Others 300 x 2.2% = 7
___________________________________________________________
 Quota Sampling
 Pros  Cons
 Although don’t know  Take more effort than
“odds…” experience many
shows it’s typically  Need trustworthy poll
“pretty good” takers
 Purposive Sampling
In purposive sampling, each sample element is selected for
a purpose, usually because of the unique position of
the sample elements.

Purposive sampling may involve studying the entire

population of some limited group (directors of shelters
for homeless adults) or a sub-set of a population (mid-
level managers with a reputation for efficiency).

Or a purposive sample may be a “key informant

survey,” which targets individuals who are particularly
knowledgeable about the issues under investigation.
 Example: Purposive sampling
 You want to know more about the opinions and
experiences of disabled students at your
university, so you purposefully select a number
of students with different support needs in
order to gather a varied range of data on their
experiences with student services.
 Snowball Sampling

Snowball sampling is useful for hard-to-

reach or hard-to-identify populations for which
there is no sampling frame, but the members
of which are somewhat interconnected (at
least some members of the population know
each other).
It can be used to sample members of such groups
as drug dealers, prostitutes, practicing criminals,
participants in Alcoholics Anonymous groups, gang
leaders, informal organizational leaders, and
homeless persons.
 More Snowball
Sampling…
More systematic versions of snowball sampling can
reduce the potential for bias. For example, “respondent-
driven sampling” gives financial incentives to respondents
to recruit peers
 Snowball Sampling
 Pros  Cons
 May be able to find  May run into a “vein”
difficult to locate or network which isn’t
groups at all representative of
such kinds of people