Physics 1 - Lecture 1 Part

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CSC4001

UNCERTAINTY
 Measuring Techniques
Some common instruments used are,
 Meter ruler  to measure distance and length
 Balances  to measure mass
 Protractors  to measure angles
 Stop watch  to measure time
 Voltmeters  to measure potential difference

What is Resolution of an instrument?

The resolution is the smallest change in the physical
quantity being measured that results in a change in the
reading given by the measuring instrument.

The smallest change in the quantity being measured

that gives a recognisable change in reading
 1° 0.1°
C C

The smaller the change that can be measured by the

instrument, the
greater the degree of resolution.
 A standard mercury thermometer has a resolution of 1°C
whereas a typical digital thermometer will have a
resolution of 0.1°C
 The digital thermometer has a higher resolution than the
mercury thermometer.
Typical
Quantity resolution of some instruments
Instrument Typical Resolution
Length M e t e r ruler 1 mm
Length Vernier Caliper 0.05 mm
Length Micrometer 0.001 mm
Mass Top-pan 0.01 g
balance
(digital)
Angle Protractor 1°
Time Stopwatch 0.01 s
Temperature Thermometer 1°C
Potential diff erence Voltmeter 1 mV – 0.1 V
Current Ammeter 1 mA – 0.1 A
What is Accuracy and Precision?
Accuracy - A measurement close to the true value is
accurate.

It is a quality denoting the closeness of agreement

between measurement and true value – it cannot be
quantified and is influenced by random and systematic
errors.

 The accuracy of all measuring devices degrade

over time. This is typically caused by normal wear
and tear.
 Calibration improves the accuracy of the
measuring device.
Precision - Precise measurements are consistent, they
fluctuate slightly about a mean value - this doesn‟t
indicate the value is accurate.

A quality denoting the closeness of agreement

(consistency) between values obtained by repeated
measurement.
 1. Four students performed an experiment to measure the
density of aluminium (2.7 g/ml). Which data is accurate
but not precise?
Fathima Salma Mohomed Divya
2.924 2.316 2.649 2.701
2.923 2.527 2.731 2.699
2.925 2.941 2.695 2.702
2.926 2.136 2.742 2.698

Accurate  Not Accurate Not Accurate Accurate Accurate

Precise Not Precise Not Precise Precise

Precise 
 What is Error?
The difference between the measurement result and
the true value if a true value is thought to exist. This is
not a mistake in the measurement. The error can be
due to both systematic and random effects and an
error of unknown size is a source of uncertainty.

 An error is defined as the difference between the actual

value and the calculated value of any physical quantity.
 There are two types of errors in physics.
• Random Errors
• Systematic Errors
 Random & Systematic Errors
 Measurements of quantities are made with the aim of
finding the
true value/ Exact value of that quantity.
 In reality, it is impossible to obtain the true value of any
quantity, there will always be a degree of uncertainty.
 Random and systematic errors are two types of
measurement errors which lead to uncertainty.
What is Random Error?
Random errors cause unpredictable fluctuations in
an instrument‟s readings as a result of
uncontrollable factors.
 Random errors affect precision
 They cause differences in measurements which
causes a spread about the mean
To reduce random errors
 Repeat measurements several times and calculate an
average from them. (this method also allows anomalies to
be identified)
 Use computers/data loggers/cameras to reduce human
error and enable smaller intervals (use of light gate and
stop watch)
 Use appropriate equipment. - a micrometer has higher
resolution (0.1 mm) than a ruler (1 mm)
What is Systematic Error?
Systematic errors occur due to the apparatus (use
of faulty instruments) or faults in the experimental
method
 Systematic errors affect accuracy.
 Systematic errors cause all results to be too high or
Example –
Balance that isn‟t zeroed correctly (zero error) or reading a
scale at a different angle (this is a parallax error).

To reduce systematic errors

 Calibrate apparatus by measuring a known value
 The technique being used should be corrected or adjusted
 In radiation experiments correct for background
radiation by measuring it beforehand and excluding
it from final results.
 read the meniscus (the central curve on the surface of a
liquid) at eye level (to reduce parallax error)
How to read meniscus and avoid parallax errors?
What is Zero Error?
This is a type of systematic error which occurs
when an instrument gives a reading when the
true reading is zero.

 A fixed error is introduced into readings which

must be accounted for when the results are
recorded.
 Make sure the reading is zero before starting an
experiment, or subtract the “zero” value from the
end results
What is the length of pencil?
What is Uncertainty?
The uncertainty is an estimate of the difference
between a measurement reading and the true
value.

There is always a degree of uncertainty when

measurements are taken. the uncertainty can be
thought of as the difference between the actual
reading taken (caused by the equipment or techniques
used) and the true value.

The uncertainty is a range of values around a

measurement within which the true value is expected
to lie, and is an estimate
 Calculating uncertainties
There are several techniques that will produce an
estimate of the uncertainty.
 Absolute Uncertainty:
Uncertainty given as a fixed quantity. The absolute
uncertainty in a quantity is the actual amount by which
the quantity is uncertain

Example :- diameter of a sphere is 64 mm ±

1 mm, The absolute uncertainty in diameter
is 1 mm.
True value lies btw 63 mm and 65 mm
Note:
Note that the absolute uncertainty of a quantity has the same
units as the quantity itself.
 Fractional Uncertainty: uncertainty as a fraction of the
measurement. The fractional uncertainty is the absolute
uncertainty divided by the quantity itself.

𝟏
Example:- Length L = 6.0 ± 0.1 cm

𝟔
the fractional uncertainty in L
𝟎.𝟏
is = 𝟔𝟎
Note:
Note that the units cancel in this division, so that fractional
uncertainty is a number.
 Percentage Uncertainty: uncertainty as a percentage of the
measurement. Percent uncertainty is fractional uncertainty
expressed as a percent, i.e. fractional uncertainty
multiplied by 100.

𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 1.7
Example:- Length L = 6.0 ± 0.1 cm𝟎.𝟏 𝟏
the percentage uncertainty in L𝟔 is
𝒙 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟔𝟎 %
Note:
The word "uncertainty", by itself, normally means "absolute"
uncertainty. Fractional or percent uncertainties are both called
"relative" uncertainties because they relate the size of the
uncertainty to the size of the result itself. Percentage uncertainty
would normally be quoted to 1 or 2 sf.
Readings and Measurements?
Readings are when one value is found. There is no zero
error

Example:- reading a thermometer

The uncertainty in a reading is ± half the smallest

division.

For a thermometer the smallest division is 1°C

so the uncertainty is ±0.5°C
Readings and Measurements?
Measurements are when the difference between 2
readings is found.
Example:- ruler (used to measure length)
(as both the starting point and end point are judged)

The uncertainty in a measurement is at least ±1

smallest division (resolution)

A ruler, must include both the uncertainty for the start

and end value, as each end has ±0.5mm, they are
added so the uncertainty in the measurement is
±1mm
 Readings Measurements
No zero error Zero error
(lining up not required before (lining up required before taking
taking the readings) measurements)
𝟏
Uncertainty = 𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Uncertainty =
𝟐
Examples:- Examples:-
• Thermometer • Ruler
• Measuring cylinder • Stop watch
• Balance • Protractor
• Voltmeter/ Ammeter • Analog meters
• Pressure gauge

Measuring
cylinder
Uncertainty of repeated data:
The uncertainty (absolute) in repeated
data:
= half the range i.e. ± ½ (largest -
smallest value)
2
Value = mean ±
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

1. A student measures the diameter of a metal canister

using a ruler graduated in mm and records these results:
Diameter / mm
Reading 1 Reading 2 Reading 3 Reading 4
66 65 61 64

Calculate the uncertainty of mean

value.
 4
= 256 = 4
66+65+61+64
mean value =

64
The range of readings is 61 mm – 66 mm so half the range is used to
determine
the uncertainty.
Uncertainty in the mean diameter= (66 2
𝑚 𝑚 – 61 𝑚 𝑚)

Therefore, the diameter of the metal canister is=64 2.5

mm ± 2.5
mm.
mm
Since a ruler graduated in mm could easily be read to ± 0.5 mm, it is
acceptable to quote the uncertainty as ± 2.5 mm for this experiment.

Note:
Uncertainties should be given to the same number of significant
figures as the data.
 Uncertainty of repeated data
Using the half range

𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈
𝒆 �
Absolute Uncertainty
of repeated data =
�
𝑹𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝟐
𝒙
Percentage Uncertainty
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏
𝟏𝟎𝟎
of repeated data =
𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
Using the reading furthest from the mean

Absolute Uncertainty = (𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 − 𝑴𝒊𝒏

of repeated data 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈)

𝒙
(𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 ; 𝑴𝒊𝒏
= 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈)
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒏
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Percentage Uncertainty
of repeated data 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
 1. A student measures velocity of an object and records these
results:
Velocity / 𝒎𝒔 ; 𝟏
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Trial 4 Trial 5 Trial 6
0.32 0.35 0.28 0.37 0.29 0.34

Calculate the absolute uncertainty and percentage

uncertainty?
0.32+0.35+0.28+0.37+0.29+0.34
= 0.325 𝑚 𝑠 ; 1
First find the avg,
Average =
6
Make the avg value as same num of decimal places of given

= 0.33 𝑚𝑠
data.
;1
0.37 ;0.28
2 2 = 0.045
Hence Average
=
Uncertainty of average =
max ; 𝑚𝑖𝑛

the value. Hence uncertainty = 0.05

𝑚 𝑠 ; 1𝑚𝑠 ; 1
Give the uncertainty as same num of decimal places of

Velocity = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟑 ± 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎𝒔 ; 𝟏
Uncertainty of digital readings or given values:
Digital readings and given values will either have the
uncertainty quoted or assumed to be ± the last significant
digit.

Example:- 3.2 ± 0.1 V, the resolution of an instrument

affects its uncertainty.

Example:- Potential difference is given 5.27 V and

resolution is not mentioned.
In this case we can assume uncertainty is „1‟ of last

 5.27 ± 0.01 V
significant figure.

How to reduce uncertainty ?

 reduce uncertainty by fixing one end of a ruler as
1. Find
(a) Absolute uncertainty? (0.1
mA)
(b)Fractional uncertainty?
(1/16)
 Combining Uncertainties
Calculations often use more than one measurement.
Each measurement will have its own uncertainty, so it is
necessary to combine the uncertainties for each
measurement to calculate the overall uncertainty.

1. Adding / Subtracting Data

 When measurements are added or subtracted in a
calculation then the uncertainty for each measurement is
added to calculate the total uncertainty.
 Adding / subtracting data – add the absolute uncertainties
1. A thermometer with an uncertainty of ±0.5 K shows the
temperature of water falling from 298±0.5 K to 273±0.5K,
what is the difference in temperature?

First find the difference in temperature values. It is 298-

Difference in temperature = 25 ± 1K
273= 25K Then add absolute uncertainties. It is 0.5+0.5=1K

2. Diameter of tyre (𝑑1) is 55.0 ± 0.5 cm and diameter of

inner tyre (𝑑2) is 21.0
± 0.7 cm , what is the difference in diameters?
 3. A student wants to determine the thickness of the walls of a
plastic pipe. He measures the internal and external diameters of
the pipe using vernier calipers and obtains the following
readings:
Internal diameter = 101.4 mm ±
0.1 mm External diameter = 102.8
mm ± 0.3 mm Find the thickness
of pipe?

The difference between these two measurements is 1.4 mm ± 0.4

mm Since the difference in the radius is required then both the
diameter and the uncertainty must be divided by 2 (since the
percentage uncertainty remains the same), therefore the
thickness of the walls is 0.7 mm ± 0.2 mm.
2. Multiplying / dividing data
 The total percentage uncertainty is calculated by adding
together the percentage uncertainties for each
measurement.
 Multiplying / dividing data – add the percentage
uncertainties
1. Afind
force
theofacceleration,
91 ± 3 N is applied to a mass of 7 ± 0.2 kg, what is
a = 91
�
First �
𝑚
a = acceleration
= 13
the

𝑚𝑠 ; 27
of the mass?

= 𝑥 100 = 3.3
Then work out percentage uncertainties of each quantity and add
them.
93
% (2SF)
percentage uncertainty of force
1
7
0.2
𝑥 100 = 2.9
% (2SF)
percentage uncertainty of mass =
Add percentage uncertainties = 3.3 % + 2.9 %

So a = 13 ± 6.2 % 𝑚𝑠 ; 2 or a = 13 ±
= 6.2 %
 2. Distance of 50.0 ± 0.1 m is travelled in 5.00 ± 0.05 s (constant
speed), what is the speed?
�

50
�
v=
First find the speed, �

v= = 10
𝑚𝑠 ; 15
�

Then work out percentage uncertainties of each quantity and add

percentage uncertainty of distance = 0.1 𝑥 100
them.
5
= 0.2 %
5 = 𝑥
0 0.05

100 percentage
=1%
percentage uncertainty of time
Add uncertainties = 0.2 % + 1 %

So v = 10 ± 1.2 % 𝑚𝑠 ; 1 or a = 10 ±
= 1.2 %

0.12 𝑚𝑠 ; 1
3. Raising a measurement to a power
 If a measurement is raised to a power, for example squared
or cubed, then the percentage uncertainty is multiplied by
that power to give the total percentage uncertainty.
 Raising to a power – multiply the uncertainty by the power
1. The radius of a circle is 5 ± 0.3 cm, what is the percentage
uncertainty in the area of the circle?
First find the area, 𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟2
𝐴 = 𝜋(5)2= 78.5 𝑐𝑚2
Then find percentage uncertainties of that quantity and multiply by

𝑥
the power.
0.3
5
100percentage
=6% uncertainty in area = 6 % x 2 (2 is the power
percentage uncertainty of radius =

from 𝑟 2 ) = 12 %
So A = 78.5 ± 12 % 𝑚2 or A = 78.5 ±
9.4 𝑚2
 1. A builder wants to calculate the area of a square tile. He uses a
rule to measure the two adjacent sides of a square tile and
obtains the following results. Find uncertainty in Area?
Length of one side = 84 mm ± 0.5 mm
Length of perpendicular side = 84 mm ± 0.5 mm
First find The percentage uncertainty in the length of each side of this
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
square tile 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 = 0.5 𝑥 100 =
84
0.59
Then = 0.6%
the area of square = 84 𝑥 84 = 7056 =
7100 𝑚𝑚2 (measurements are
find

to 2 SF)
The percentage uncertainty in the area of the
square tile is calculated by
multiplying the percentage uncertainty in the

= 78.5
1.2%± 12 % 𝑚2 or A = 78.5 ±
length by 2. Percentage uncertainty in A = 2 ×

uncertainty in area = 6 % x 2 (2 is
0.6%
9.4 𝑚2
So A =

the power from 𝑟2 ) = 12 %

percentage
 Using uncertainties in drawing conclusions
Often an experiment will require a comparison to a known
value. This is when the uncertainty can be used to assess
whether the measured value is accurate or not.
1. Calculating maximum and minimum values
 The final uncertainty can be used to determine the range
in which the measured value may lie.
 Find the maximum and minimum value according to the
uncertainty.
 Then compare the true value.

A student obtained a value of g = 10.1 𝑚𝑠 ; 2 .The experimental

Example –

Minimum value of g = 10.1 − (10.1 × 4%) = 9.7 𝑚𝑠 ; 2

percentage uncertainty was calculated as 4%.

;𝟐
2. Calculating a percentage difference
 If the measured value has been determined from a graph
and there is no information about the percentage
uncertainty of the measured value.
 Then percentage difference can be used to comment on
accuracy.
Note:
Percentage difference is not uncertainty. It is an idea about how
accurate our results/ measured values are. We are comparing our

𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 ;𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆

measured value with the true value of the same

𝑻𝒓𝒖𝒆
Percentage difference =
𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 𝒙

𝟏𝟎𝟎
Refer the same
example
 We can calculate the percentage difference of two
measured values from below expression.

𝒙
𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒐𝒇 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Percentage difference =
𝒈𝒆
1. The student measured the diameter of the sphere using a
micrometer.

(a) Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the diameter of the sphere

shown on the micrometer.
(b)State one precaution that should be taken before using a
micrometer.
 2. A student measured potential difference using an analogue
voltmeter.

(a) Calculate the percentage uncertainty in the measurement of

the potential
difference.
 (b)The student could use a digital multimeter. Discuss the
advantages of choosing the digital multimeter to measure the
potential
difference.

• (Percentage)
uncertainty will
be reduced
• The multimeter
screen/display will not
cause a parallax error
• The multimeter can
measure to
a higher resolution
• The digital multimeter
will not require
interpolation of values
3.A bullet travels a distance of l=154±0.5 m in the time t=0.4±0.05
s.
(a) Calculate the fractional uncertainty for the speed of the bullet.
(b)Calculate the percentage uncertainty for the speed of the bullet.
(c) Write down the speed of the bullet using the absolute uncertainty.

4.The volume of a pyramid with base length l, base width w, and

height h is given by V=lwh/3. The volume of the pyramid was
measured with an uncertainty of 12%, while the base length and
base width were measured with an uncertainty of 4%. What is the
uncertainty of the height of the pyramid?

5.The current passing through a resistor is I=3±0.1 A and the

measured in watt (W), supplied to the resistor is given by P = 𝑅𝐼2.

resistance of the resistor is R=13±0.5 Ω. The electrical power,

a) Write down the value of the supplied power correct to one

significant figure.
b)Find the percentage uncertainty for the current passing through