GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING SEVERAL GEOPHYSICAL METHODS ARE AVAILABLE WHICH CAN PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT THE SUB SURFACE

ORE DEPOSITS. SEISMIC EXPLORATION IN ITS VARIOUS RAMIFICATIONS OFFERS THE GREATEST AMOUNT OF DETAIL IN THE FORM OF DIRECT MEASUREMENTS OF ROCK ATTITUDES AND CONFIGURATIONS. OTHER GEOPHYSICAL TOOLS WHICH CAN PROVIDE USEFUL INFORMATION INCLUDE GRAVITY, MAGNETIC AND ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHODS. THE FIRST TWO OFFER LITTLE DATA ON THE CONTINUITY OR ATTITUDE OF THE ROCKS SINCE THEY MEASURE AMBIENT CONDITIONS ABOUT THE POINT OF OBSERVATION AND THE RESULTS OBTAINED ARE OFTEN AMBIQUOUS. SEPARATION OF THAT PORTION OF THE OBSERVED MEASUREMENTS REPRESENTING NEAR SURFACE CONDITIONS FROM THOSE MANIFESTATIONS ATTRIBUTABLE TO DEEP SEATED ROCKS MAY BE EXTREMELY DIFFICULT. THESE TYPES OF GEOPHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS WHILE LESS EXPENSIVE TO USE THAN THEIR SEISMIC COUNTERPARTS HOWEVER, THEY ARE USEFUL IN AREAS WHERE SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS ARE NOT

CONDUCIVE TO PROPOGATION OF SEISMIC ENERGY. ELECTROMAGNETIC AND RADIOMETRIC METHODS ALSO ENJOY SPECIAL
STATUS IN ORE PROSPECTING. HOWEVER, AN AEROMAGNETIC METHODS SEEM TO BE OF LESS USE IN MINING INDUSTRY. THE GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING IS THE SEARCH FOR THE HIDDEN TREASURES OF THE EARTH WHICH ARE ECONOMICALLY IMPORTANT TO MANKIND. THESE HIDDEN TREASURES ARE THE HYDROCARBONS, PETROLEUM AND GAS, MINERAL DEPOSITS, GROUND WATER AND GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES. THIS SEARCH IS CARRIED OUT BY MAKING PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS EITHER ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH OR ABROAD AN AIRCRAFT OR ON SHIPS IN OFFSORE AREAS OR IN BOREHOLES WHICH RESPECTIVELY WE CALL AS GROUND PROSPECTING, AIRBORNE PROSPECTING OR SHIPBORNE (MARINE OR OFFSHORE) PROSPECTING WELL LOGGING. THE DATA SO OBTAINED FROM THESE MEASUREMENTS ARE PROCESSED AND INTERPRETED IN TERMS OF THE CAUSATIVE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES.

THE PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS ARE BASED ON THE VARIATION OF PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ROCK FORMATION. AND THESE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ARE ELASTIC PROPERTIES, DENSITY, MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY, ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY AND RADIOACTIVITY. BASED ON THE ABOVE MENTIONED PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND ASSOCIATED FIELDS OR PHENOMENON, WE CLASSIFY THE GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING METHODS AS (1) SEISMIC METHOD (2) GRAVITY METHOD (3) MAGNETIC METHOD (4) ELECTRICAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD (5) RADIOACTIVE METHOD (6) WELL LOGGING.

ORE BODIES OR GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES FAVOURABLE FOR OIL AND GAS ACCUMULATION OR GROUND WATER AND GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS FREQUENTLY DIFFER IN ONE OR OTHER PHYSICAL PROPERTIES FROM THE ROCKS IN WHICH THEY ARE FOUND EMBEDDED. IN SUCH CASES THEREFORE THE ASSOCIATED PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS WOULD SHOW SIGNIFICANT VARIATIONS AS COMPARED TO THE NORMAL PATTERN. THESE SIGNIFICANT VARIATIONS ARE TERMED AS

GEOPHYSICAL ANOMALIES OR SIMPLY ANOMALIES. BASED ON THESE VARIATIONS, SOME OF THE GEOPHYSICAL
PROSPECTING METHODS ARE USED ENTIRELY IN SEARCH FOR OIL AND GAS WHEREAS OTHERS ARE USED PRIMARILY IN EXPLORATION FOR MINERALS MOST OF THEM MAY BE EMPLOYED FOR EITHER OBJECTIVE. SEISMIC AND GRAVITY PROSPECTING ARE MAINLY TOOLS FOR PETROLEUM EXPLORATION; ELECTRICAL METHODS ARE PREDOMINANTLY USED FOR MINERAL EXPLORATION. MAGNETIC METHODS ARE EMPLOYED FOR BOTH TYPES OF PROSPECTING. ELECTRICAL AND ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS ARE COMMONLY EMPLOYED FOR GROUNDWATER AND GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION.

1 SEISMIC METHOD: IN THIS METHOD WE PRODUCE SMALL SCALE EARTHQUAKE PRIMARILY BY EXPLODING DYNAMITE. WHEN AN EXPLOSION TAKES PLACE, VIBRATIONS ARE PRODUCED IN THE EARTH AND THESE PROPOGATE AS WAVES INSIDE THE EARTH WHICH ARE KNOWN AS SEISMIC WAVES. BASICALLY TWO TYPES OF WAVES ARE POSSIBLE (1) BODY WAVES PROPOGATING INSIDE THE BODY OF THE MEDIUM AND (2) SURFACE WAVES PROPOGATING ALONG THE SURFACE OF THE MEDIUM.

BODY WAVES ARE AGAIN OF TWO TYPES NAMELY PRIMARY OR COMPRESSIONAL OR LONGITUDINAL (P) WAVES AND SECONDARY OR SHEAR OR TRANSVERSE (S) WAVES. IN PWAVES, PARTICLE MOTION IS ALONG THE DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION WHEREAS PARTICLE MOTION IS AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE DIRECTION OF PROPAGATION IN S-WAVES. SWAVES ARE ATTENURATED FASTER IN THE EARTH WHEREAS P-WAVES, HAVING GREATEST VELOCITY, PENETRATE DEEPER.

OF ALL THE SEISMIC WAVE TYPES, IN PROSPECTING WORK, P-WAVES ARE COMMONLY EMPLOYED.

AS THESE WAVES PROPAGATE DOWNWARDS IN THE EARTH, THEY ENCOUNTER DIFFERENT LAYERS OF ROCKS AND GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES POSSESSING DIFFERENT PROPAGATION VELOCITIES SO AT THESE BOUNDARIES, THE WAVES ARE REFLECTED AND REFRACTED. THESE REFLECTED AND REFRACTED WAVES ARE RECORDED ON THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH BY SPECIALLY DESIGNED INSTRUMENTS, KNOWN AS GEOPHONE, WHICH CONVERT THE GROUND VIBRATIONS INTO ELECTRICAL SIGNALS. THE SIGNALS AFTER GOING THROUGH VARIOUS ELECTRONIC AMPLIFIERS AND FILTERS ETC. ARE FINALLY RECORDED EITHER PHOTOGRAPHICALLY OR ON MAGNETIC TAPE OR DIGITALLY. THE RECORD OF THESE SEISMIC EVENTS IS KNOWN AS SEISMOGRAM.

BASED ON THE RECORDING AND USAGE OF REFLECTED OR REFRACTED SIGNALS, TWO MAIN SUBGROUPS EMERGE KNOWN AS (A) SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD AND (B) SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD. (A) SEISMIC REFLECTION METHOD: IT IS THE MOST EXTENSIVELY USED METHOD FOR EXPLORATION OF OIL BEARING STRUCTURES. WITH THIS METHOD, STRUCTURE OF THE SUBSURFACE FORMATIONS IS MAPPED BY MEASURING TIMES REQUIRED FOR SEISMIC WAVES TO REACH THE SURFACE AFTER REFLECTION FROM INTERFACES BETWEEN FORMATIONS HAVING DIFFERENT VELOCITIES. THE GEOPHONES ARE LAID ALONG THE GROUND AT DISTANCES FROM THE SHOT POINT THAT ARE GENERALLY SMALL AS COMPARED TO THE DEPTH OF THE REFLECTION. DEPTHS TO THE REFLECTING INTERFACES CAN BE DETERMINED FROM THE TIMES USING VELOCITY INFORMATIONS THAT CAN BE OBTAINED EITHER FROM REFLECTED SIGNALS THEMSELVES OR FROM SURVEYS IN WELL (LIKE WELL SHOOTING, CONTINUOUS VELOCITY LOGGING ETC.), REFLECTIONS FROM DEPTHS AS GREAT AS 20,000 FT CAN NORMALLY BE OBSERVED FROM SINGLE EXPLOSION SO THAT IN MOST AREAS GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES CAN BE DETERMINED THROUGHOUT THE SEDIMENTARY SECTION. IN RECENT YEARS, REFLECTION DATA HAVE ALSO BEEN USED FOR IDENTIFYING LITHOLOGY GENERALLY FROM VELOCITY AND ATTENUATION CHARACTERISTICS AND FOR DETECTING HYDROCARBONS DIRECTLY, PRIMARILY GAS, ON THE BASIS OF

REFLECTION AMPLITUDES AND OTHER SEISMIC INDICATORS. THE REFLECTION METHOD PROVIDES A STRUCTURAL PICTURE
OF THE SUB-SURFACE VERY ACCURATELY, UNDER IDEAL CONDITIONS, THE STRUCTURAL RELIEF BEING DETERMINED WITH A PRECISION OF 10-20 FT. THE METHOD MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO PRODUCE STRUCTURAL MAPS OF ANY GEOLOGIC HORIZONS WHICH YIELD REFLECTIONS, BUT THE HORIZONS THEMSELVES CANNOT BE IDENTIFIED WITHOUT INDEPENDENT GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION SUCH AS MIGHT BE OBTAINED FROM WELLS.

WITH REFLECTION METHODS ONE CAN LOCATE AND MAP SUCH FEATURES AS ANTICLINES, FAULTS, SALTS DOMES AND REEFS. MANY OF THESE ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE ACCUMULATION OF OIL AND GAS. ALTHOUGH STRATIGRAPHIC TRAPS SUCH AS PINCHOUTS AND FACIES CHANGES CAN BE DETECTED FROM REFLECTION SECTIONS, SUCCESSFUL EXPLORATION FOR STRATIGRAPHIC OIL ACCUMULATIONS REQUIRES SKILLFUL COORDINATION OF GEOLOGIC AND SEISMIC INFORMATION.

MEASURES : TRAVEL TIMES OF INDUCED ENERGY FROM VARIOUS SOURCE. ACCURACY : 2X10-3 SEC = 5-25 FEET DECREASING WITH DEPTH. COVERAGE IS LINEAR AT ANY DESIRED HORIZONTAL SPACING. GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT : PRIMARY SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. EFFECTIVE DEPTH : 500 FEET TO UNLIMITED DEPTH. APPLICATION : MEASURES DEPTHS TO VARIOUS ROCK LAYERS. CONTINUITY OF SUCH LAYERS AND LOCATES DISCONTINUITIES SUCH AS FAULTS AND CAVITY. ALSO PROVIDES DATA ON STRATIGRAPHIC CONDITIONS. LIMITATIONS : VERTICAL VELOCITY CALIBRATION REQUIRED FOR DEPTH DETERMINATION. ENERGY SOURCE : VIBRATORS, EXPLOSIVE IN HOLES, WEIGHT DROPS, GAS EXPLORATION IN CONFINING SURFACE CHAMBER, IN MARINE ENVIRONMENT GAS, AIR STEAM GUNS, ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE ALSO ABOVE. VIBRATION ONLY METHOD COMPATIBLE WITH URBAN ENVIRONMENT.

(B) SEISMIC REFRACTION METHOD: THE SEISMIC REFRACTION METHODS ARE BASED ON THE STUDY OF THE TIMES OF ARRIVAL OF SEISMIC WAVES WHICH ARE REFRACTED AT THE BOUNDARY OF AN ELASTIC DISCONTINUITY AND REFRACTED BACK TO THE SURFACE. FROM THE MEASUREMENTS OF TRAVEL TIME OF REFRACTED WAVES, WE MAY DETERMINE VELOCITIES OF LAYERS AND DEPTH TO THE BEDS. IF THE FIRST ARRIVAL TRAVEL TIMES ARE PLOTTED AGAINST THE RESPECTIVE DISTANCE OF GEOPHONES FROM THE SHOT POINT, THE RESULTING DATA CAN BE FITTED BY AS MANY STRAIGHT LINES AS MANY LAYERS ARE INVOLVED. IN REFRACTION SHOOTING, THE DETECTING INSTRUMENTS RECORD SEISMIC SIGNALS AT A DISTANCE FROM THE SHOT POINT THAT IS LARGE COMPARED WITH THE DEPTH OF THE HORIZON TO BE MAPPED. THE EXPLOSION WAVES MUST THUS TRAVEL LARGE HORIZONTAL DISTANCES THROUGH THE EARTH. ALTHOUGH THE REFRACTION METHOD DOES NOT GIVE AS MUCH INFORMATION OR AS PRECISE A STRUCTURAL PICTURE AS REFLECTION, IT PROVIDES DATA ON VELOCITY OF THE REFRACTING BEDS WHICH OFTEN ALLOW GEOPHYSICIST TO IDENTIFY THEM OR TO SPECIFY THEIR LITHOLOGY. THE METHOD USUALLY MAKES IT POSSIBLE TO COVER A GIVEN AREA IN A SHORTER TIME AND MORE ECONOMICALLY THAN WITH THE REFLECTION DATA.

REFRACTION IS PARTICULARLY SUITABLE WHERE THE STRUCTURE OF A HIGIH SPEED SURFACE SUCH AS THE BASEMENT OR
THE TOP OF A LIMESTONE LAYER IS A TARGET OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. IF THE PROBLEM IS TO DETERMINE THE DEPTH AND SHAPE OF SEDIMENTARY BASIN BY MAPPING THE BASEMENT SURFACE, REFRACTION CAN BE HIGHLY EFFECTIVE. IT IS ALSO USEFUL IN MAPPING SALT DOME, IN DETECTING AND DETERMINING THROW OF FAULTS IN HIGH SPEED FORMATIONS SUCH AS DENSE LIMESTONE AND BASEMENT MAINLY.

THE METHOD HOWEVER, IS MUCH LESS EXTENSIVELY EMPLOYED IN OIL EXPLORATION THAN REFLECTION METHOD. THIS IS PROBABLY ATTRIBUTABLE TO THE GREATER AMOUNTS OF DYNAMITE REQUIRED, THE LARGER SCALE OF FIELD OPERATIONS AND THE LOWER PRECISION IN THE STRUCTURAL INFORMATION OBTAINABLE FROM THE METHOD.

MEASURES : TRAVEL TIMES OF INDUCED ENERGY FROM EXPLOSIVE. VIBRATOR : MEASUREMENTS IN 10-3 SECONDS ACCURACY: 2X10-3 SEC = 10.3 FEET. COVERAGE IS LINEAR AT ANY DESIRED HORIZONTAL SPACING. GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT : SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, IGNEOUS OR METAMORPHIC ROCKS. EFFECTIVE DEPTH : 0-500 FEET. GREATER DEPTHS REQUIRE EXCESSIVE HORIZONTAL EXTENSION OF OPERATION. APPLICATION : MEASURES DEPTHS TO BED ROCK ALONG EXTENDED LINES. DETERMINATION OF S-WAVE AND P-WAVE VELOCITIES IN REFRACTING ZONE FROM WHICH ROCK PROPERTIES DERIVABLE. REVEAL CONFIGURATION AND CONTINUITY OF ROCK SURFACE. MASSIVE ORE DEPOSITS. LIMITATIONS : VERTICAL VELOCITY CALIBRATION REQUIRED FOR DEPTH DETERMINATION. NOT ECONOMICAL FOR SMALL JOBS. GIVES POOR RESULTS FOR STEEP DIP. ENERGY SOURCE : VIBRATION, EXPLOSIVE SOURCE.

(2) GRAVITY METHOD GRAVITY PROSPECTING INVOLVES THE MEASUREMENT OF MINUTE VARIATIONS IN THE GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF THE EARTH CAUSED BY LOCAL VARIATIONS IN DENSITY OF ROCKS NEAR THE SURFACE. DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROCKS HAVE DIFFERENT DENSITIES AND DENSER ROCKS HAVE THE GREATER GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION.IF HIGHER DENSITY FORMATIONS ARE ARCHED UPWARD IN A STRUCTURAL HIGH, SUCH AS AN ANTICLINE , THE EARTHS GRAVITATIONAL FIELD WILL BE GREATER OVER THE AXIS OF THE STRUCTURE THAN ALONG ITS FLANKS. A SALT DOME ON THE OTHER HAND, WHICH IS GENERALLY LESS DENSE THAN THE ROCKS INTO WHICH IT IS INTRUDED CAN BE DETECTED FOR THE LOW VALUE OF GRAVITY RECORDED ABOVE IT COMPARED WITH THAT MEASURED ON EITHER SIDE. ANOMALIES IN GRAVITY WHICH ARE SOUGHT IN OIL OR MINERAL EXPLORATION MAY REPRESENT ONLY ONE-MILLIONTH OR EVEN ONE-TEN-MILLIONTH OF THE EARTH'S TOTAL FIELD. FOR THIS REASON, GRAVITY INSTRUMENTS ARE DESIGNED TO MEASURE VARIATIONS IN THE FORCE

OF GRAVITY FROM ONE PLACE TO ANOTHER RATHER THAN THE ABSOLUTE FORCE ITSELF. MODERN INSTRUMENTS NAMELY
GRAVIMETERS ARE SO SENSITIVE THAT THEY CAN DETECT VARIATIONS IN GRAVITY TO WITHIN ONE-HUNDRED MILLIONTH OF EARTH'S TOTAL FIELD. GRAVITY PROSPECTING IS USED AS RECONNAISSANCE TOOL IN OIL EXPLORATION. ANTICLINAL STRUCTURES AND BASEMENT HIGH, FAVOURABLE FOR OCCURRENCE OF PETROLEUM MAY BE LOCATED FROM POSITIVE GRAVITY ANOMALIES. IT IS ALSO SUITABLE FOR LOCATING AND MAPPING SALT DOMES WHICH GIVE RISE TO NEGATIVE GRAVITY ANOMALIES. IN MINERAL EXPLORATION, IT HAS USUALLY BEEN EMPLOYED AS A SECONDARY METHOD, ALTHOUGH OCCASSIONALLY IT CAN BE USED FOR DIRECT DETECTION OF HEAVY MINERALS SUCH AS CHROMITES.

MEASURES : TOTAL DENSITY OF ROCKS. MEASUREMENT : IN 10-8 GALS ACCURACY : 1 X 10-7 GALS COVERAGE IS SPHERICAL AROUND POINT. GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT : PREFERABLY WITH LARGE DENSITY CONTRAST E.G. CHROMITE. EFFECTIVE DEPTH : MORE THAN 3000 FEET. INTENSITY OF SIGNAL DECREASES AS SQUARE OF DEPTH. APPLICATIONS : MEASURING LATERAL CHANGES OF ROCK TYPES, LOCATION OF CAVERNS. LIMITATIONS : DOES NOT PROVIDE DIRECT MEASUREMENT OF GEOMETRY OF ROCKS. ENERGY SOURCES : AMBIENT.

(3) MAGNETIC METHOD THE MAGNETIC METHOD DEPENDS UPON MEASURING ACCURATELY THE ANOMALIES OF LOCAL GEOMAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED BY THE VARIATIONS IN THE INTENSITY OF MAGNETIZATION IN ROCK FORMATIONS. THE INTENSITY OF MAGNETIZATION DEPENDS PRIMARILY UPON THE MAGNETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY AS WELL AS THE MAGNETIZING FORCE. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS HAVE GENERALLY VERY SMALL SUSCEPTIBILITY COMPARED WITH IGNEOUS OR METAMORPHIC ROCKS,

WHICH TEND TO HAVE A MUCH HIGHER MAGNETIC CONTENT.

MOST MAGNETIC SURVEYS ARE DESIGNED TO MAP STRUCTURE ON OR INSIDE THE BASEMENT OR TO DETECT MAGNETIC MINERALS DIRECTLY. THE MAGNETIC METHOD WAS USED INITIALLY FOR PETROLEUM EXPLORATION IN AREAS WHERE THE STRUCTURE IN OIL BEARING SEDIMENTARY LAYERS APPEARED TO BE CONTROLLED BY TOPOGRAPHIC FEATURES SUCH AS RIDGES OR FAULTS, ON THE BASEMENT SURFACE.

SINCE THE DEVELOPMENT OF AEROMAGNETIC METHODS, MOST MAGNETIC SURVEYS UNDERTAKEN FOR OIL EXPLORATION ARE CARRIED OUT TO ASCERTAIN THE THICKNESS OF SEDIMENTARY SECTION IN AREAS WHERE SUCH INFORMATION IS NOT OTHERWISE AVAILABLE. IN MINING EXPLORATION, MAGNETIC METHODS ARE EMPLOYED FOR DIRECT DETECTION OF ORES CONTAINING MAGNETIC MINERALS SUCH AS MAGNETITE. INTRUSIVE BODIES SUCH AS DIKES CAN OFTEN BE DISTINGUISHED ON THE BASIS OF MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS ALONE.

MEASURE : TOTAL MAGNETIC INTENSITIES OR VERTICAL FIELD / HORIZONTAL FIELD MEASUREMENT : IN GAMMA, 1 GAMMA FOR TOTAL FIELD, 2.5 TO 10 GAMMA FOR VERTICAL FIELD, 10 GAMMA FOR HORIZONTAL FIELD. COVERAGE IS AT POINT, MEASURES FIELD INTENSITIES GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT : ANY BUT PRIMARILY IGNEOUS EFFECTIVE DEPTH : NOT SELECTIVE BUT FILED STRENGTH DECREASES AS SQUARE OF DISTANCES FROM THE OBSERVER APPLICATION : DISCLOSES PRESENCE OF LOCAL METALLIC BODIES. USEFUL FOR MAPPING BURIED PIPE LINES, ALSO MAY INDICATE FAULTING AND OLD WORKING. LIMITATION : DOES NOT PROVIDE DIRECT EVIDENCE OF ROCK GEOMETRY. ENERGY SOURCE : AMBIENT.

4. ELECTRICAL METHODS ELECTRICAL PROSPECTING INVOLVES THE DETECTION OF SURFACE EFFECTS PRODUCED BY ELECTRIC CURRENT FLOW IN THE GROUND. THE FLOW OF THE CURRENT IN THE GROUND IS MAINLY GOVERNED BY THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF THE FORMATIONS. THE CONDUCTIVITY OR ITS INVERSE RESISTIVITY, COMMONLY USED PARAMETER, IS THE RESISTANCE OFFERED BETWEEN THE OPPOSITE FACES OF A UNIT CUBE OF THE MATERIAL TO CURRENT FLOW. IT VARIES ENORMOUSLY

IN ROCKS AND MINERALS FROM 10-8 OHM-M FOR METALLIC MINERALS TO AS LARGE AS 108 OHM-M OF SOME IGNEOUS
ROCKS. IN GENERAL RESISTIVITY OF ROCKS IS HIGH - THE ORDER BEING LOWEST FOR SEDIMENTARY, INTERMEDIATE FOR METAMORPHIC AND HIGHEST FOR IGNEOUS ROCKS. THE ROCKS ARE IN GENERAL POORLY CONDUCTING BUT THE PRESENCE OF ELECTROLYTES IN THE FORM OF GROUNDWATER ETC. MAKE IT CONDUCTING. BY ELECTRICAL METHOD, IT IS THEREFORE POSSIBLE TO MAP THE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY VARIATIONS IN THE SUBSURFACE BY MAKING APPROPRIATE MEASUREMENTS AND THUS IN GENERAL IT IS POSSIBLE TO LOCATE CONDUCTING MINERALS AND PRESENCE OF GROUND WATER BY THESE METHODS. MEASURES : RELATIVE ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY OF THE ROCKS MEASUREMENTS : FROM 3X 10-3 TO 104 OHMS, GENERALLY 10-1 OHMS SENSITIVITY. COVERAGE IS LINEAR OVER SHORT DISTANCES

GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT : ANY BUT PRIMARILY FOR OVERBURDEN EVALUATION.

EFFECTIVE DEPTH : UP TO 3000 FEET BUT NORMALLY LESS THAN 100 FEET APPLICATION : EXPLORATION FOR ORE BODIES, MASSIVE SULPHIDE ORE, AQUIFER LOCATION, GRAVEL DEPOSITS. LIMITATION : RESULTS OFTEN AMBIGUOUS. ENERGY SOURCE : ELECTRICAL CURRENT.

THERE ARE VARIETY OF ELECTRICAL METHODS WHICH EITHER USE NATURAL SOURCE ELECTRIC FIELD OR EXTERNALLY SUPPLIED ELECTRICAL FIELD.

(A) NATURAL FIELD METHODS:

(I) SELF POTENTIAL (SP) METHOD (II) TELLURIC CURRENT METHOD (I)SELF POTENTIAL METHOD : SOMETIME ELECTRIC POTENTIALS ARE GENERATED IN THE ORE BODIES THEMSELVES WHICH ARE KNOWN AS SELF POTENTIALS. DUE TO DIFFERENTIAL OXIDATION AND REDUCTION REACTIONS IN THE SUBSURFACE HAVING ELECTROLYTES, DIFFERENT SOLUTION PRESSURES ARE DEVELOPED IN DIFFERENT ZONES IN CONTACT WITH ORE BODIES WHICH GIVE RISE TO SUCH CONDITIONS THAT THE BODY BEHAVES LIKE A BATTERY WITH NEGATIVE POLARITY ON THE TOP THIS BEHAVIOUR IS EXHIBITED STRONGLY BY PYRITE, PYRROHOTITE, CHALCOPYRITE, SPHALERITE. GALENA AND GRAPHITE ETC. SUCH NATURAL BATTERIES GIVE OUT VOLTAGES WHICH ARE OBSERVED FROM FEW MILLIVOLTS TO ABOUT ONE VOLT. IN AREAS WHERE WE EXPECT PRESENCE OF SUCH MINERALISED BODIES FROM GEOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE. SELF

POTENTIAL METHOD MAY BE CONDUCTED TO LOCATE IT.

(II) TELLURIC CURRENT METHOD : LARGE SHEETS OF CURRENT ARE INDUCED IN THE EARTHS SUB SURFACE BY IONOSPHERIC CURRENTS GIVING RISE TO VOLTAGE GRADIENTS OF THE ORDER OF 10MV/KM. THESE NATURAL EARTH CURRENTS TEND TO BY PASS ZONES OF LOW CONDUCTIVITY AND CONCENTRATE IN ZONES OF HIGH CONDUCTIVITY. MEASUREMENTS OF VOLTAGE GRADIENTS ARE CARRIED OUT USUALLY IN ORTHOGON DIRECTION AT A BASE STATION AND

FIELD STATION. THESE MEASUREMENTS ARE THEN CORRELATED IN TERMS OF CONDUCTIVITY VARIATIONS.

(b) EXTERNAL FIELD METHODS SUPPLY OR ENERGISE THE EARTH WITH ELECTRIC CURRENT OF EXTERNAL ORIGIN. TWO IMPORTANT METHODS PRESENTLY IN USE ARERESISTIVITY METHOD INDUCED POLARISATION METHOD RESISTIVITY METHOD : THE CURRENT (I) IS SUPPLIED TO EARTHS SUB SURFACE THROUGH TWO CURRENT ELECTRODES AND MEASUREMENT OF VOLTAGE DIFFERENCE (V) BETWEEN TWO POINTS IS DONE WHICH FOR KNOWN CURRENT GIVE V/I = R. THIS RATIO WHEN MULTIPLIED BY A FACTOR KNOWN AS GEOMETRIC FACTOR DEPENDING UPON LAYOUT OR

CONFIGURATION OF CURRENT AND POTENTIAL ELECTRODES GIVES RESISTIVITY. THE RESISTIVITY SO OBTAINED IS TRUE
RESISTIVITY AS LONG AS THE MEDIUM IS HOMOGENEOUS BUT FOR LAYERED EARTH, THE RESISTIVITY SO OBTAINED IS CALLED APPARENT RESISTIVITY. SEVERAL ELECTRODE CONFIGURATIONS ARE EMPLOYED BUT MOST COMMONLY USED ARE WENNER AND SCHLUMBURGER CONFIGURATION. THE LATERAL VARIATION OF RESISTIVITY IS USEFUL IN LOCATING ORE BODIES, DYKES AND FAULTS. RESISTIVITY SOUNDING IS USED TO MAP RESISTIVITY VARIATION WITH DEPTH AND IS EXTENSIVELY USED IN GROUND WATER EXPLORATION. (II) INDUCED POLARISATION METHOD : IF FLOW OF ELECTRIC CURRENT IN THE GROUND IS INTERRUPTED, VOLTAGE ACROSS POTENTIAL ELECTRODES DOES NOT DROP TO ZERO INSTANTANEOUSLY. IT IS FOUND INSTEAD TO RELAX FOR SEVERAL SECONDS STARTING FROM AN INITIAL VALUE WHICH IS A SMALL FRACTION OF THE VOLTAGE THAT EXISTED WHEN THE CURRENT WAS FLOWING. THIS PHENOMENON HAS BEEN TERMED INDUCED POLARISATION AND IS EASILY OBSERVED WHEN

ELECTRONICALLY CONDUCTING MINERALS OR CLAY MINERALS ARE PRESENT IN THE GROUND. THE METHOD IS
SUCCESSFULLY APPLIED FOR EXPLORATION OF DISSEMINATED SULPHIDE ORE BODIES.

5. ELECTROMAGNETIC ETHODS: IF A TIME VARYING ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD IS PRODUCED ON THE SURFACE OF THE GROUND, CURRENTS WILL FLOW IN SUB SURFACE CONDUCTORS FOLLOWING LAWS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION. THESE CURRENTS GIVE RISE TO SECONDARY ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD WHICH DISTORT THE PRIMARY FIELD OBSERVED AT ANY POINT ON THE SURFACE. IN GENERAL, THE RESULTANT FIELD WHICH MAY BE PICKED UP BY A SUITABLE SEARCH COIL WILL DIFFER FROM THE PRIMARY FIELD IN INTENSITY, PHASE AND DIRECTION AND REVEAL THE PRESENCE OF CONDUCTORS. THERE ARE VARIETIES OF ELECTROMAGNETIC PROSPECTING SYSTEMS WHICH MEASURE DIFFERENT PARAMETERS. THE METHOD IS VERY SUCCESSFUL IN LOCATION OF CONDUCTING SULPHIDE ORE BODIES, LOCATION OF SHEAR ZONES, GEOTHERMAL RESOURCES EXPLORATION ETC. AND FOR EXPLORATION IN ARID ZONES AND PERMAFROST AREAS. MAGNETOTELLURIC METHOD IS SPECIALLY BEING USED FOR SEDIMENTARY BASIN EVALUATION IN OIL EXPLORATION WHERE SEISMIC REFLECTION HAS FAILED, LIKE VOLCANIC COVERED AREAS. MEASURES : AMPLITUDE AND PHASE ANGLE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD. MEASUREMENTS : IN SCALE READINGS. COVERAGE : POINTS. GEOLOGIC ENVIRONMENT : ANY. EFFECTIVE DEPTH : SURFICIAL. APPLICATION : AQUIFER LOCATION, PYRITE AND OTHER CONDUCTING DEPOSITS LIMITATIONS : RESTRICTED APPLICATIONS AND AMBIGUOUS RESULTS. ENERGY : LOW FREQUENCY RADIO TRANSMISSION (15 -25 KHz)

6. RADIOACTIVE METHOD: MINUTE TRACES OF RADIOACTIVE MINERALS ARE PRESENT IN ALL IGNEOUS AND SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. RADIOMETRIC SURVEYS FOR LOCATION OF DEPOSITS OF URANIUM AND THORIUM ORES ARE CONDUCTED WITH THE HELP OF GEIGERMULLER COUNTERS, SCINTILLATION COUNTERS AND GAMMA RAY SPECTROMETERS. MEASURES GAMMA RAY RADIATION COVERAGE POINT EFFECTIVE DEPTH SURFICIAL APPLICATION PROSPECTING FOR RADIOACTIVE ORES LIMITATIONS MEASURES SURFICIAL MANIFESTATIONS ONLY, OFTEN USED IN BOREHOLES COST PER SURVEY LOW INCREASING WITH AREA.

7. WELL LOGGING: GEOPHYSICAL METHODS CARRIED OUT IN BOREHOLES OR WELLS ARE CALLED WELL LOGGING. LOGGING OPERATIONS PROVIDE RELIABLE INFORMATIONS ABOUT THE LITHOLOGY OF THE FORMATIONS, IDENTIFICATION OF PRODUCTIVE HYDROCARBON HORIZONS, DEPTH AND THICKNESS OF PAY ZONES AND USEFUL DATA FOR SUBSURFACE STRUCTURAL MAPPING. LOGGING OPERATIONS ARE PARTICULARLY INDISPENSABLE IN ALL WELLS DRILLED FOR OIL AND GAS. THEY ARE OFTEN CARRIED OUT IN HOLES DRILLED FOR GROUND WATER AND MINING EXPLORATION.

PRINCIPAL METHODS OF WELL LOGGING ARE (i) ELECTRICAL LOGGING (ii) RADIOACTIVITY LOGGING (iii) SONIC LOGGING OR CONTINUOUS VELOCITY LOGGING (iv) MISCELLANEOUS LOGS LIKE TEMPERATURE LOG, CALIPER LOG, DIPMETER LOG.