Osteology

Dr.Kumar Satish Ravi

M.B.B.S.,M.D.(JIPMER)

Please take out the following bones:

Hip Bone
Tibia & Fibula

The Foot

Femur Patella

The Pelvic Girdle

Sacrum
Hip Bone Os Coxa Sacrum Hip Bone Os Coxa

2 hip bones & sacrum

The Hip Bone

Ilium
At birth 3 separate bones that fuse at puberty.
Ilium Pubis Ischium Pubis
Acetabulum Acetabular Notch

Ischium

 The skeleton of LL (Inf. appendicular skeleton) divided into 2 functional components: the pelvic girdle & the bones of the free lower limb . The pelvic girdle: Bony pelvis composed of the sacrum and right & left hip bones joined anteriorly at the pubic symphysis. It attaches the free LL to the axial skeleton, the sacrum being common to the axial skeleton & the pelvic girdle.

Arrangement of Lower Limb Bones

Hip Bone Hip bone(L. os coxae), innominate (unnamed) bone, large, flat pelvic bone formed by the fusion of three primary bones ilium, ischium, and pubis . At puberty, the 3 bones are still separated by a Yshaped triradiate cartilage centered in the acetabulum.

Ilium
The ilium,largest part of the hip bone & contributes the superior part of the acetabulum. The body of the ilium joins the pubis & ischium to form the acetabulum.
Anterior superior and anterior inferior iliac spines. The iliac crest, extends posteriorly, terminating at the posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS). A prominence on the external lip of the crest, the tubercle of the iliac crest , iliac tubercle, lies 5-6 cm posterior to the ASIS. The posterior inferior iliac spine marks the superior end of the greater sciatic notch.

 The lateral surface of the ala of the ilium has three rough curved lines posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal lines that demarcate the proximal attachments of the three large gluteal muscles (glutei). Medially, each ala has a large, smooth depression, the iliac fossa , that provides proximal attachment for the iliac muscle (L. iliacus). Posteriorly, the medial aspect of the ilium has a rough, ear-shaped articular area called the auricular surface (L. auricula, a little ear).

Ischium The ischium forms the posteroinferior part of the hip bone. The ramus of the ischium joins the inferior ramus of the pubis to form a bar of bone, the ischiopubic ramus, which constitutes the inferomedial boundary of the obturator foramen. The posterior border of the ischium forms the inferior margin of a deep indentation called the greater sciatic notch. The large, triangular ischial spine at the inferior margin of this notch provides ligamentous attachment. The rough bony projection at the junction of the inferior end of the body of the ischium and its ramus is the large ischial tuberosity.

Pubis
The pubis is divided into a flattened body and two rami, superior and inferior. Medially, the symphysial surface of the body articulates with the corresponding surface of the contralateral pubis, pubic symphysis. The anterosuperior border of the united bodies and symphysis forms the pubic crest. Small projections at the lateral ends of this crest, the pubic tubercles, are important landmarks of the inguinal regions. The tubercles provide attachment for the medial part of the inguinal ligament. The posterior margin of the superior ramus of the pubis has a sharp raised edge, the pecten pubis.

Obturator Foramen
The obturator foramen is a large oval aperture in the hip bone. It is bounded by the pubis and ischium and their rami. Except for a small passageway for the obturator nerve & vessels (the obturator canal), the obturator foramen is closed by the thin, strong obturator membrane.

Acetabulum The acetabulum is the large cupshaped cavity or socket on the lateral aspect of the hip bone that articulates with the head of the femur to form the hip joint . The margin of the acetabulum is incomplete inferiorly at the acetabular notch. The rough depression in the floor of the acetabulum extending superiorly from the acetabular notch is the acetabular fossa.

Injuries of the Hip Bone (Pelvic Injuries) Fractures of the hip bone are commonly referred to as pelvic fractures.
Avulsion fractures of the hip bone may occur during sports that require sudden acceleration or deceleration forces, such as sprinting or kicking in football, soccer, hurdle jumping, basketball, and martial arts.

The Femur (ant. view)

Greater
& Lesser Trochanter s Head Neck

Intertrochanteric Line
Body (shaft)

Lateral epicondyle
Lateral condyle

Adductor tubercle Medial epicondyle Medial condyle

The Femur (post. view)

4. Pectineal Line

1. Intertrochanteric Crest 2. Quadrate Tubercle

3. Gluteal Tuberosity 5. Linea Aspera 7. Popliteal Surface The trochanters, tubercles, lines and epicondyles are sites of muscle and ligament attachment

6. Medial and Lateral Supracondylar Lines

8. Intercondylar notch

Angle of Inclination (Between the femoral neck and shaft)

Approx. 125o

The angle of inclination is measured in the frontal plane and typically ranges from 115 to 140 degrees.

Coxa Vara

An angle between femoral neck and shaft less than 115; increases stress on femoral neck. This: 1. shortens the limb; 2. decreases the effectiveness of the abductors; 3. increases the load on the femoral neck; 4. reduces the load on the femoral head.

Coxa Valga

An angle between femoral neck and shaft greater than 140; increases pressure into the joint This:

1. lengthens the limb;

2. mimics contracture of the hip abductors;

3. reduces the load on the femoral neck;

4. increases the load on the femoral head.
A contracture is a permanent tightening of muscles, tendons, ligaments, or skin that prevents movement of the associated body part.

Angle of Torsion
The angle between the axis of the neck and the transverse axis that passes through the femoral condyles

Normal

12o -14o

Retroversion <12o

Anteversion >15o

Excessive Anteversion
An increase in the angle of torsion (anteversion) influences the rotation of the limb and produces a toe in gait (pigeon toes).

Retroversion
A decrease in the angle of torsion (retroversion) influences the rotation of the limb and produces a toe out gait (duck feet).

Femur
The femur is the longest and heaviest bone in the body. It transmits body weight from the hip bone to the tibia when a person is standing. The femur consists of a shaft (body) and two ends, superior or proximal and inferior or distal .

Femur
The superior (proximal) end of the femur consists of a head, neck, and two trochanters (greater and lesser). The round head of the femur is covered with articular cartilage, except for a medially placed depression or pit, the fovea for the ligament of the head.

Femur
The neck of the femur is trapezoidal, with its narrow end supporting the head and its broader base being continuous with the shaft.

 The proximal femur is bent (L-shaped) so that the long axis of the head and neck projects superomedially at an angle to that of the obliquely oriented shaft.

The angle is less in females because of the increased width between the acetabula (a consequence of a wider lesser pelvis) and the greater obliquity of the shaft.

 The angle of inclination allows greater mobility of the femur at the hip joint because it places the head and neck more perpendicular to the acetabulum in the neutral position.

The angle also allows the obliquity of the femur within the thigh, which permits the knees to be adjacent and inferior to the trunk,

 All of this is advantageous for bipedal walking; however, it imposes considerable strain on the neck of the femur. Consequently, fractures of the femoral neck can occur in older people as a result of a slight stumble if the neck has been weakened by osteoporosis

 The torsion of the proximal lower limb (femur) that occurred during development. When the femur is viewed superiorly, it is apparent that the two axes lie at an angle (the torsion angle, or angle of declination), the mean of which is 7 in males and 12 in females. The torsion angle, combined with the angle of inclination, allows rotatory movements of the femoral head.

 Where the neck joins the femoral shaft are two large, blunt elevations called trochanters. The abrupt, conical and rounded lesser trochanter extends medially from the posteromedial part of the junction of the neck and shaft to give tendinous attachment to the primary flexor of the thigh (the iliopsoas).

 The greater trochanter is a large, laterally placed bony mass that projects superiorly and posteriorly where the neck joins the femoral shaft, providing attachment and leverage for abductors and rotators of the thigh.

 The site where the neck and shaft join is indicated by the intertrochanteric line, a roughened ridge formed by the attachment of a powerful ligament (iliofemoral ligament).

 A similar but smoother & more prominent ridge, the intertrochanteri c crest, joins the trochanters posteriorly. The rounded elevation on the crest is the quadrate tubercle

 The shaft of the femur is convex anteriorly. This convexity may increase markedly, proceeding laterally as well as anteriorly, if the shaft is weakened by a loss of calcium, as occurs in rickets.

The shaft is providing fleshy origin to extensors of the knee, except posteriorly where a broad, rough line, the linea aspera, provides attachment for adductors of the thigh. This vertical ridge is especially prominent in the middle third of the femoral shaft, where it has medial and lateral lips (margins). Superiorly, the lateral lip blends with the broad, rough gluteal tuberosity, and the medial lip continues as a narrow, rough spiral line. The spiral line extends toward the lesser trochanter but then passes to the anterior surface of the femur, where it is continuous with the intertrochanteric line.

 A prominent intermediate ridge, the pectineal line, extends from the central part of the linea aspera to the base of the lesser trochanter. Inferiorly, the linea aspera divides into medial and lateral supracondylar lines, which lead to the spirally curved medial and lateral condyles.

The medial and lateral femoral condyles make up nearly the entire inferior end of the femur. The femoral condyles articulate with tibial condyles to form the knee joint. The condyles are separated posteriorly and inferiorly by an intercondylar fossa (intercondylar notch) but merge anteriorly, forming a shallow longitudinal depression, the patellar surface, which articulates with the patella. The lateral surface of the lateral condyle has a central projection called the lateral epicondyle. The medial surface of the medial condyle has a larger and more prominent medial epicondyle, superior to which another elevation, the adductor tubercle. The epicondyles provide proximal attachment for the collateral ligaments of the knee joint.

Coxa Vara and Coxa Valga

The angle of inclination between the long axis of the femoral neck & the femoral shaft varies with age, sex, and development of the femur (e.g., a congenital defect in the ossification of the femoral neck). It may also change with any pathological process that weakens the neck of the femur (e.g., rickets). When the angle of inclination is decreased, the condition is coxa vara; when it is increased, it is coxa valga. Coxa vara causes a mild shortening of the lower limb and limits passive abduction of the hip.

Tibia and Fibula The tibia and fibula are the bones of the leg. The tibia articulates with the condyles of the femur superiorly and the talus inferiorly and in so doing transmits the body's weight. The fibula mainly functions as an attachment for muscles and also important for the stability of the ankle joint. The shafts (bodies) of the tibia and fibula are connected by a dense interosseous membrane composed of strong oblique fibers.

Tibia Located on the anteromedial side of the leg, nearly parallel to the fibula, the tibia (shin bone) is the second largest bone in the body. The superior (proximal) end widens to form medial and lateral condyles that overhang the shaft medially, laterally, and posteriorly, forming a relatively flat superior articular surface.

The articular surfaces are separated by an intercondylar eminence formed by two intercondylar tubercles (medial and lateral) flanked by relatively rough anterior and posterior intercondylar areas.

The intercondylar tubercles and areas provide attachment for the menisci and principal ligaments of the knee, which hold the femur and tibia together, maintaining contact between their articular surfaces.

The anterolateral aspect of the lateral tibial condyle bears an anterolateral tibial tubercle (Gerdy tubercle) inferior to the articular surface, which provides the distal attachment for a dense thickening of the fascia covering the lateral thigh, adding stability to the knee joint. The lateral condyle also bears a fibular articular facet posterolaterally on its inferior aspect for the head of the fibula.

The shaft of the tibia is vertical and somewhat triangular in cross section, having three surfaces and borders: medial, lateral/interosseous, and posterior. The anterior border of the tibia is the most prominent border; it and the adjacent anterior surface are subcutaneous throughout their lengths and are commonly known as the shin or shin bone.

The distal end of the tibia is smaller than the proximal end, flaring only medially; the medial expansion extends inferior to the rest of the shaft as the medial malleolus.

The inferior surface of the shaft and the lateral surface of the medial malleolus articulate with the talus and are covered with articular cartilage.

The interosseous border of the tibia is sharp where it gives attachment to the interosseous membrane that unites the two leg bones. Inferiorly, the sharp border is replaced by a groove, the fibular notch, that accommodates and provides fibrous attachment to the distal end of the fibula.

On the posterior surface of the proximal part of the tibial shaft is a rough diagonal ridge, called the soleal line, which runs inferomedially to the medial border; origin of the soleus muscle approximately one third of the way down the shaft.

Fibula
The slender fibula lies posterolateral to the tibia and is firmly attached to it by the tibiofibular syndesmosis, which includes the interosseous membrane. The fibula has no function in weight bearing; it serves mainly for muscle attachment, providing distal attachment (insertion) for one muscle and proximal attachment (origin) for eight muscles.

The distal end enlarges and is prolonged laterally and inferiorly as the lateral malleolus. The malleoli form the outer walls of a rectangular socket (mortise), which is the superior component of the ankle joint, and provide attachment for the ligaments that stabilize the joint. The lateral malleolus is more prominent and posterior than the medial malleolus and extends approximately 1 cm more distally.

The proximal end of the fibula consists of an enlarged head and smaller neck; the head has a pointed apex. The head articulates with the fibular facet on the posterolateral, inferior aspect of the lateral tibial condyle. The shaft of the fibula is twisted and marked by the sites of muscular attachments. Like the shaft of the tibia, it is triangular in cross section, having three borders (anterior, interosseous, and posterior) and three surfaces (medial, posterior, and lateral).

Fibular Fractures
Fibular fractures commonly occur 2 - 6 cm proximal to the distal end of the lateral malleolus and are often associated with fracture dislocations of the ankle joint, which are combined with tibial fractures. When a person slips and the foot is forced into an excessively inverted position, the ankle ligaments tear, forcibly tilting the talus against the lateral malleolus and shearing it off . Fractures of the lateral and medial malleoli are relatively common in soccer and basketball players. Fibular fractures can be painful owing to disrupted muscle attachments; walking is compromised because of the bone's role in ankle stability.

Bone Grafts
If a part of a major bone is destroyed by injury or disease, the limb becomes useless. Replacement of the affected segment by a bone transplant may avoid amputation. The fibula is a common source of bone for grafting. Even after a segment of shaft has been removed, walking, running, and jumping can be normal. Free vascularized fibulas have been used to restore skeletal integrity to upper and lower limbs in which congenital bone defects exist and to replace segments of bone after trauma or excision of a malignant tumor. The remaining parts of the fibula usually do not regenerate because the periosteum and nutrient artery are generally removed with the piece of bone so that the graft will remain alive and grow when transplanted to another site. Secured in its new site, the fibular segment restores the blood supply of the bone to which it is now attached. Healing proceeds as if a fracture had occurred at each of its ends. Awareness of the location of the nutrient foramen in the fibula is important when performing free vascularized fibular transfers. Because the nutrient foramen is located in the middle third of the fibula in most cases, this segment of the bone is used for transplanting when the graft must include a blood supply to the marrow cavity as well as to the compact bone of the surface (via the periosteum).

Bones of the Foot The bones of the foot include the tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges. There are 7 tarsal bones, 5 metatarsal bones, and 14 phalanges.

Tarsus
The tarsus (posterior or proximal foot; hindfoot) consists of seven bones: talus, calcaneus, cuboid, navicular, and three cuneiforms. Only one bone, the talus, articulates with the leg bones. The talus has a body, neck, and head. The superior surface, or trochlea of the talus, is gripped by the two malleoli and receives the weight of the body from the tibia. It transmits that weight in turn, dividing it between the calcaneus, on which the talar body rests, and the forefoot, via an osseoligamentous hammock' that receives the rounded and anteromedially directed talar head. The hammock (spring ligament) is suspended across a gap between the talar shelf (a bracket-like lateral projection of the calcaneus) and the navicular bone, which lies anteriorly . The talar body bears the trochlea superiorly and narrows into a posterior process that features a groove for the tendon of the flexor hallucis longus, flanked by a prominent lateral tubercle and a less prominent medial tubercle.

The calcaneus (heel bone) is the largest and strongest bone in the foot. When standing, the calcaneus transmits the majority of the body's weight from the talus to the ground. The anterior two thirds of the calcaneus's superior surface articulates with the talus and its anterior surface articulates with the cuboid. The lateral surface of the calcaneus has an oblique ridge, the fibular trochlea. On the medial side, the talar shelf (L. sustentaculum tali), the shelf-like support of the talus, projects from the superior border of the medial surface of the calcaneus and participates in supporting the talar head. The posterior part of the calcaneus has a massive, weightbearing prominence, the calcaneal tuberosity.

The navicular (L. little ship) is a flattened, boatshaped bone located between the talar head posteriorly and the three cuneiforms anteriorly. The medial surface of the navicular projects inferiorly to form the navicular tuberosity. It forms a longitudinal arch of the foot, which must be supported centrally. If this tuberosity is too prominent, it may press against the medial part of the shoe and cause foot pain.

The cuboid, approximately cubical in shape, is the most lateral bone in the distal row of the tarsus. Anterior to the tuberosity of the cuboid on the lateral and inferior surfaces of the bone is a groove for the tendon of the fibularis longus muscle.

The three cuneiforms are the medial (1st), intermediate (2nd), and lateral (3rd). The medial cuneiform is the largest bone, and the intermediate cuneiform is the smallest. Each cuneiform (L. cuneus, wedge shaped) articulates with the navicular posteriorly and the base of its appropriate metatarsal anteriorly. The lateral cuneiform also articulates with the cuboid.

Metatarsus
The metatarsus (anterior or distal foot, forefoot) consists of five metatarsals that are numbered from the medial side of the foot. In the articulated skeleton of the foot , the tarsometatarsal joints form an oblique tarsometatarsal line joining the midpoints of the medial and shorter lateral borders of the foot; thus the metatarsals and phalanges are located in the anterior half (forefoot) and the tarsals are in the posterior half (hindfoot)

The 1st metatarsal is shorter and stouter than the others. The 2nd metatarsal is the longest. Each metatarsal has a base proximally, a shaft, and a head distally. The base of each metatarsal is the larger, proximal end. The bases of the metatarsals articulate with the cuneiform and cuboid bones, and the heads articulate with the proximal phalanges. On the plantar surface of the head of the 1st metatarsal are prominent medial and lateral sesamoid bones (not shown); they are embedded in the tendons passing along the plantar surface.

Phalanges The 14 phalanges are as follows: the 1st digit (great toe) has 2 phalanges (proximal and distal); the other four digits have 3 phalanges each: proximal, middle, and distal. Each phalanx has a base (proximally), a shaft, and a head (distally). The phalanges of the 1st digit are short, broad, and strong. The middle and distal phalanges of the 5th digit may be fused in elderly people.

Os Trigonum
During ossification of the talus, the secondary ossification center, which becomes the lateral tubercle of the talus, occasionally fails to unite with the body of the talus. This failure may be caused by applied stress (forceful plantarflexion) during the early teens. Occasionally, a partly or even fully ossified center may fracture and progress to non-union. Either event may result in a bone (accessory ossicle) known as an os trigonum, which occurs in 14 - 25% of adults, more commonly bilaterally. It has an increased prevalence among soccer players and ballet dancers. Patients with an os trigonum may be symptomatic or pain free. Radionuclide bone scanning, which provides physiological as well as anatomical evidence, is useful in distinguishing symptomatic and asymptomatic ossicles. (Lawson, 1994)