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04 carbon and the molecular diversity of life

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This document provides an overview of chapter 4 from Campbell Biology, 9th edition which discusses carbon and the molecular diversity of life. It covers how carbon is the backbone of living organisms and can form large, complex molecules like proteins, DNA, carbohydrates. It also summarizes key points about organic chemistry, the formation of carbon-carbon bonds, isomers, important functional groups in biological molecules, and how ATP is used to store energy. The document contains lecture slides with titles, images, and bullet points about these topics.

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LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson Chapter 4 Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview: Carbon: The Backbone of Life • Living organisms consist mostly of carbon-based compounds • Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules • Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all composed of carbon compounds © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.1
Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds • Organic chemistry is the study of compounds that contain carbon • Organic compounds range from simple molecules to colossal ones • Most organic compounds contain hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon atoms © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Vitalism, the idea that organic compounds arise only in organisms, was disproved when chemists synthesized these compounds • Mechanism is the view that all natural phenomena are governed by physical and chemical laws © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Organic Molecules and the Origin of Life on Earth • Stanley Miller’s classic experiment demonstrated the abiotic synthesis of organic compounds • Experiments support the idea that abiotic synthesis of organic compounds, perhaps near volcanoes, could have been a stage in the origin of life © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.2 EXPERIMENT “Atmosphere” CH4 Water vapor Electrode NH 3 H2 Condenser Cooled “rain” containing Cold organic water molecules H2O “sea” Sample for chemical analysis
Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms • Electron configuration is the key to an atom’s characteristics • Electron configuration determines the kinds and number of bonds an atom will form with other atoms © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Formation of Bonds with Carbon • With four valence electrons, carbon can form four covalent bonds with a variety of atoms • This ability makes large, complex molecules possible • In molecules with multiple carbons, each carbon bonded to four other atoms has a tetrahedral shape • However, when two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, the atoms joined to the carbons are in the same plane as the carbons © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.3 Name and Molecular Structural Ball-and- Space-Filling Comment Formula Formula Stick Model Model (a) Methane CH4 (b) Ethane C2H6 (c) Ethene (ethylene) C2H4
• The electron configuration of carbon gives it covalent compatibility with many different elements • The valences of carbon and its most frequent partners (hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) are the “building code” that governs the architecture of living molecules © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.4 Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Carbon (valence = 1) (valence = 2) (valence = 3) (valence = 4)
• Carbon atoms can partner with atoms other than hydrogen; for example: – Carbon dioxide: CO2 O=C=O – Urea: CO(NH2)2 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.UN01 Urea
Molecular Diversity Arising from Carbon Skeleton Variation • Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules • Carbon chains vary in length and shape © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.5 (a) Length (c) Double bond position Ethane Propane 1-Butene 2-Butene (b) Branching (d) Presence of rings Butane 2-Methylpropane Cyclohexane Benzene (isobutane)
Hydrocarbons • Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen • Many organic molecules, such as fats, have hydrocarbon components • Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.6 Nucleus Fat droplets 10 µm (a) Part of a human adipose cell (b) A fat molecule
Isomers • Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties – Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms – Cis-trans isomers have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements – Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.7 (a) Structural isomers (b) Cis-trans isomers cis isomer: The two Xs trans isomer: The two Xs are on the same side. are on opposite sides. (c) Enantiomers CO2H CO2H H NH2 NH2 H CH3 CH3 L isomer D isomer
• Enantiomers are important in the pharmaceutical industry • Two enantiomers of a drug may have different effects • Usually only one isomer is biologically active • Differing effects of enantiomers demonstrate that organisms are sensitive to even subtle variations in molecules © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.8 Effective Ineffective Drug Condition Enantiomer Enantiomer Ibuprofen Pain; inflammation S-Ibuprofen R-Ibuprofen Albuterol Asthma R-Albuterol S-Albuterol
A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules • Distinctive properties of organic molecules depend on the carbon skeleton and on the molecular components attached to it • A number of characteristic groups called functional groups can replace the hydrogens attached to skeletons of organic molecules © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Chemical Groups Most Important in the Processes of Life • Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions • The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.UN02 Estradiol Testosterone
• The seven functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: – Hydroxyl group – Carbonyl group – Carboxyl group – Amino group – Sulfhydryl group – Phosphate group – Methyl group © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4.9a Hydroxyl STRUCTURE Alcohols NAME OF (Their specific COMPOUND names usually (may be written end in -ol.) HO—) EXAMPLE • Is polar as a result FUNCTIONAL of the electrons PROPERTIES spending more time near the electronegative oxygen atom. Ethanol • Can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, helping dissolve organic compounds such as sugars.
Figure 4.9b Carbonyl STRUCTURE Ketones if the carbonyl NAME OF group is within a COMPOUND carbon skeleton Aldehydes if the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton EXAMPLE • A ketone and an FUNCTIONAL aldehyde may be PROPERTIES structural isomers with different properties, as is the case for acetone and propanal. • Ketone and aldehyde Acetone groups are also found in sugars, giving rise to two major groups of sugars: ketoses (containing ketone groups) and aldoses (containing aldehyde Propanal groups).
Figure 4.9c Carboxyl STRUCTURE Carboxylic acids, or organic NAME OF acids COMPOUND EXAMPLE • Acts as an acid; can FUNCTIONAL donate an H+ because the PROPERTIES covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar: Acetic acid Nonionized Ionized • Found in cells in the ionized form with a charge of 1– and called a carboxylate ion.
Figure 4.9d Amino STRUCTURE Amines NAME OF COMPOUND EXAMPLE • Acts as a base; can FUNCTIONAL pick up an H+ from the PROPERTIES surrounding solution (water, in living organisms): Glycine Nonionized Ionized • Found in cells in the ionized form with a charge of 1+.
Figure 4.9e Sulfhydryl STRUCTURE Thiols NAME OF COMPOUND (may be written HS—) EXAMPLE • Two sulfhydryl groups can FUNCTIONAL react, forming a covalent PROPERTIES bond. This “cross-linking” helps stabilize protein structure. • Cross-linking of cysteines in hair proteins maintains the curliness or straightness Cysteine of hair. Straight hair can be “permanently” curled by shaping it around curlers and then breaking and re-forming the cross-linking bonds.
Figure 4.9f Phosphate STRUCTURE Organic phosphates NAME OF COMPOUND EXAMPLE • Contributes negative FUNCTIONAL charge to the molecule PROPERTIES of which it is a part (2– when at the end of a molecule, as at left; 1– when located internally in a chain of phosphates). Glycerol phosphate • Molecules containing phosphate groups have the potential to react with water, releasing energy.
Figure 4.9g Methyl STRUCTURE Methylated compounds NAME OF COMPOUND EXAMPLE • Addition of a methyl group FUNCTIONAL to DNA, or to molecules PROPERTIES bound to DNA, affects the expression of genes. • Arrangement of methyl groups in male and female sex hormones affects their shape and function. 5-Methyl cytidine
ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes • One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy- transferring molecule in the cell • ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of three phosphate groups © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 4. UN04 Adenosine
The Chemical Elements of Life: A Review • The versatility of carbon makes possible the great diversity of organic molecules • Variation at the molecular level lies at the foundation of all biological diversity © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

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04 carbon and the molecular diversity of life

  • 1. LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson Chapter 4 Carbon and the Molecular Diversity of Life Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 2. Overview: Carbon: The Backbone of Life • Living organisms consist mostly of carbon-based compounds • Carbon is unparalleled in its ability to form large, complex, and diverse molecules • Proteins, DNA, carbohydrates, and other molecules that distinguish living matter are all composed of carbon compounds © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 4. Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds • Organic chemistry is the study of compounds that contain carbon • Organic compounds range from simple molecules to colossal ones • Most organic compounds contain hydrogen atoms in addition to carbon atoms © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 5. • Vitalism, the idea that organic compounds arise only in organisms, was disproved when chemists synthesized these compounds • Mechanism is the view that all natural phenomena are governed by physical and chemical laws © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 6. Organic Molecules and the Origin of Life on Earth • Stanley Miller’s classic experiment demonstrated the abiotic synthesis of organic compounds • Experiments support the idea that abiotic synthesis of organic compounds, perhaps near volcanoes, could have been a stage in the origin of life © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 7. Figure 4.2 EXPERIMENT “Atmosphere” CH4 Water vapor Electrode NH 3 H2 Condenser Cooled “rain” containing Cold organic water molecules H2O “sea” Sample for chemical analysis
  • 8. Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding to four other atoms • Electron configuration is the key to an atom’s characteristics • Electron configuration determines the kinds and number of bonds an atom will form with other atoms © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 9. The Formation of Bonds with Carbon • With four valence electrons, carbon can form four covalent bonds with a variety of atoms • This ability makes large, complex molecules possible • In molecules with multiple carbons, each carbon bonded to four other atoms has a tetrahedral shape • However, when two carbon atoms are joined by a double bond, the atoms joined to the carbons are in the same plane as the carbons © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 10. Figure 4.3 Name and Molecular Structural Ball-and- Space-Filling Comment Formula Formula Stick Model Model (a) Methane CH4 (b) Ethane C2H6 (c) Ethene (ethylene) C2H4
  • 11. • The electron configuration of carbon gives it covalent compatibility with many different elements • The valences of carbon and its most frequent partners (hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen) are the “building code” that governs the architecture of living molecules © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 12. Figure 4.4 Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen Carbon (valence = 1) (valence = 2) (valence = 3) (valence = 4)
  • 13. • Carbon atoms can partner with atoms other than hydrogen; for example: – Carbon dioxide: CO2 O=C=O – Urea: CO(NH2)2 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 15. Molecular Diversity Arising from Carbon Skeleton Variation • Carbon chains form the skeletons of most organic molecules • Carbon chains vary in length and shape © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 16. Figure 4.5 (a) Length (c) Double bond position Ethane Propane 1-Butene 2-Butene (b) Branching (d) Presence of rings Butane 2-Methylpropane Cyclohexane Benzene (isobutane)
  • 17. Hydrocarbons • Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen • Many organic molecules, such as fats, have hydrocarbon components • Hydrocarbons can undergo reactions that release a large amount of energy © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 18. Figure 4.6 Nucleus Fat droplets 10 µm (a) Part of a human adipose cell (b) A fat molecule
  • 19. Isomers • Isomers are compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures and properties – Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms – Cis-trans isomers have the same covalent bonds but differ in spatial arrangements – Enantiomers are isomers that are mirror images of each other © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 20. Figure 4.7 (a) Structural isomers (b) Cis-trans isomers cis isomer: The two Xs trans isomer: The two Xs are on the same side. are on opposite sides. (c) Enantiomers CO2H CO2H H NH2 NH2 H CH3 CH3 L isomer D isomer
  • 21. • Enantiomers are important in the pharmaceutical industry • Two enantiomers of a drug may have different effects • Usually only one isomer is biologically active • Differing effects of enantiomers demonstrate that organisms are sensitive to even subtle variations in molecules © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 22. Figure 4.8 Effective Ineffective Drug Condition Enantiomer Enantiomer Ibuprofen Pain; inflammation S-Ibuprofen R-Ibuprofen Albuterol Asthma R-Albuterol S-Albuterol
  • 23. A few chemical groups are key to the functioning of biological molecules • Distinctive properties of organic molecules depend on the carbon skeleton and on the molecular components attached to it • A number of characteristic groups called functional groups can replace the hydrogens attached to skeletons of organic molecules © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 24. The Chemical Groups Most Important in the Processes of Life • Functional groups are the components of organic molecules that are most commonly involved in chemical reactions • The number and arrangement of functional groups give each molecule its unique properties © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 25. Figure 4.UN02 Estradiol Testosterone
  • 26. • The seven functional groups that are most important in the chemistry of life: – Hydroxyl group – Carbonyl group – Carboxyl group – Amino group – Sulfhydryl group – Phosphate group – Methyl group © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 27. Figure 4.9a Hydroxyl STRUCTURE Alcohols NAME OF (Their specific COMPOUND names usually (may be written end in -ol.) HO—) EXAMPLE • Is polar as a result FUNCTIONAL of the electrons PROPERTIES spending more time near the electronegative oxygen atom. Ethanol • Can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules, helping dissolve organic compounds such as sugars.
  • 28. Figure 4.9b Carbonyl STRUCTURE Ketones if the carbonyl NAME OF group is within a COMPOUND carbon skeleton Aldehydes if the carbonyl group is at the end of the carbon skeleton EXAMPLE • A ketone and an FUNCTIONAL aldehyde may be PROPERTIES structural isomers with different properties, as is the case for acetone and propanal. • Ketone and aldehyde Acetone groups are also found in sugars, giving rise to two major groups of sugars: ketoses (containing ketone groups) and aldoses (containing aldehyde Propanal groups).
  • 29. Figure 4.9c Carboxyl STRUCTURE Carboxylic acids, or organic NAME OF acids COMPOUND EXAMPLE • Acts as an acid; can FUNCTIONAL donate an H+ because the PROPERTIES covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar: Acetic acid Nonionized Ionized • Found in cells in the ionized form with a charge of 1– and called a carboxylate ion.
  • 30. Figure 4.9d Amino STRUCTURE Amines NAME OF COMPOUND EXAMPLE • Acts as a base; can FUNCTIONAL pick up an H+ from the PROPERTIES surrounding solution (water, in living organisms): Glycine Nonionized Ionized • Found in cells in the ionized form with a charge of 1+.
  • 31. Figure 4.9e Sulfhydryl STRUCTURE Thiols NAME OF COMPOUND (may be written HS—) EXAMPLE • Two sulfhydryl groups can FUNCTIONAL react, forming a covalent PROPERTIES bond. This “cross-linking” helps stabilize protein structure. • Cross-linking of cysteines in hair proteins maintains the curliness or straightness Cysteine of hair. Straight hair can be “permanently” curled by shaping it around curlers and then breaking and re-forming the cross-linking bonds.
  • 32. Figure 4.9f Phosphate STRUCTURE Organic phosphates NAME OF COMPOUND EXAMPLE • Contributes negative FUNCTIONAL charge to the molecule PROPERTIES of which it is a part (2– when at the end of a molecule, as at left; 1– when located internally in a chain of phosphates). Glycerol phosphate • Molecules containing phosphate groups have the potential to react with water, releasing energy.
  • 33. Figure 4.9g Methyl STRUCTURE Methylated compounds NAME OF COMPOUND EXAMPLE • Addition of a methyl group FUNCTIONAL to DNA, or to molecules PROPERTIES bound to DNA, affects the expression of genes. • Arrangement of methyl groups in male and female sex hormones affects their shape and function. 5-Methyl cytidine
  • 34. ATP: An Important Source of Energy for Cellular Processes • One phosphate molecule, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is the primary energy- transferring molecule in the cell • ATP consists of an organic molecule called adenosine attached to a string of three phosphate groups © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
  • 35. Figure 4. UN04 Adenosine
  • 36. The Chemical Elements of Life: A Review • The versatility of carbon makes possible the great diversity of organic molecules • Variation at the molecular level lies at the foundation of all biological diversity © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Editor's Notes

  1. Figure 4.1 What properties make carbon the basis of all life?
  2. Figure 4.2 Inquiry: Can organic molecules form under conditions believed to simulate those on the early Earth?
  3. Figure 4.3 The shapes of three simple organic molecules.
  4. Figure 4.4 Valences of the major elements of organic molecules.
  5. Figure 4.UN01 In-text figure, p. 61
  6. Figure 4.5 Four ways that carbon skeletons can vary.
  7. Figure 4.6 The role of hydrocarbons in fats.
  8. Figure 4.7 Three types of isomers, compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures.
  9. Figure 4.8 The pharmacological importance of enantiomers.
  10. Figure 4.UN02 In-text figure, p. 63
  11. Figure 4.9 Exploring: Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups
  12. Figure 4.9 Exploring: Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups
  13. Figure 4.9 Exploring: Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups
  14. Figure 4.9 Exploring: Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups
  15. Figure 4.9 Exploring: Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups
  16. Figure 4.9 Exploring: Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups
  17. Figure 4.9 Exploring: Some Biologically Important Chemical Groups
  18. Figure 4.UN04 In-text figure, p. 66